At-risk students

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An at-risk student is a term used in the United States to describe a student who requires temporary or ongoing intervention in order to succeed academically. [1] At risk students, sometimes referred to as at-risk youth or at-promise youth, [2] are also adolescents who are less likely to transition successfully into adulthood and achieve economic self-sufficiency. [3] Characteristics of at-risk students include emotional or behavioral problems, truancy, low academic performance, showing a lack of interest for academics, and expressing a disconnection from the school environment. [1] A school's effort to at-risk students is essential. For example, a study showed that 80% to 87% of variables that led to a school's retention are predictable with linear modeling. [4] In January 2020, Governor Newsom of California changed all references to "at-risk" to "at-promise" in the California Penal Codes. [5]

Contents

History of the Term "At Risk"

The term "at-risk" came into use after the 1983 article "A Nation at Risk," published by the National Commission on Excellence in Education. The article described United States society as being economically and socially endangered. [6] At-risk students are those students who have been labeled, either officially or unofficially, as being in danger of academic failure. In the U.S., different states define "at-risk" differently, so it is difficult to compare the varying state policies on the subject.

Students who are labeled as "at-risk" face a number of challenges that other students do not. According to Becky Smerdon's research for the American Institutes for Research, students, especially boys, with low socioeconomic status (and therefore more likely to be labeled "at-risk") show feelings of isolation and estrangement in their schools. [7] Educational philosopher Gloria Ladson-Billings claimed in a 2006 speech that the label itself actually contributes to the challenges. Her view is that, "We cannot saddle these babies at kindergarten with this label and expect them to proudly wear it for the next 13 years, and think, 'Well, gee, I don't know why they aren't doing good.'" [8] There is an ongoing conversation among experts in this field about the importance of asset-based terminology. In 2021, the National Journal of At-risk Youth actually changed their name to the National Journal of Youth Advocacy and Resilience as a way to employ asset-based terminology about youth and to better describe the perspective of those in the field. [9]

History of Prevention for "At-Risk Youth"

At the time of the mid-20th century, the term, "at-risk" wasn't identified or acknowledge in society. However, during the 1960s and 1970s, there was a pivotal point in how society viewed juvenile offenders and their approach to restorative justice. Studies have shown that punitive measures were often ineffective in addressing the reduction in juvenile crimes. [10] Through research and findings, it resulted in factors that effect a youth's action and increase risk in encountering the juvenile system. [11] It later identified that at-risk youth have a higher chance entering the juvenile system. Subsequently, the need for preventative juvenile justice services, specifically from community services, to help youth, take preventive action, and navigate youth entering and exiting the juvenile system. Preventative juvenile justice services became needed at the end of the 1970s and there is still current debates on preventing juveniles from entering the juvenile system.

Contributing factors documented in the United States

Poverty

Youth that come from low socio-economic status are more likely to be labeled "at-risk." [12] Impoverished environments can create several risk factors for youth, making them increasingly vulnerable to risk-behaviors and impacted life outcomes as they grow. [12] Growing up in poverty is associated with several risk factors, including those social-behavioral (for example substance abuse), environmental (violent neighborhoods), ecological, and familial (exposure to psychological imbalance). [13] [14] These risk factors are shown to have negative correlations with academic achievement, and positive correlations with problem behaviors. [15] Youth living in households with income under 50% of the federal poverty level are those most vulnerable. [3]

Family instability and dysfunction

Growing up in a stable two-parent household is associated with better health, academic achievement, and social skills like healthy interaction with peers. Studies have shown changes in structure, such as parental divorce, co-habitation, and remarriage, have strong negative relationships between multiple transitions and academic success. Children who are exposed to domestic violence, criminal activity, or substance abuse have a much higher chance of long-term behavioral problems, such as alcoholism and drug abuse and mental health problems. [3]

School environment and community resources

Schools can place students "at-risk" by leaving them without academic skills and preparedness. School environments can often be places of struggle for many adolescent youth. Bullying in particular is likely to lead to student disengagement putting students at risk for behavioral problems and school dropout. [3]

High poverty neighborhoods are often characterized by high crime rates, limited resources, and underperforming schools. Schools with fewer resources are more likely to be associated with poor academic outcomes. Fewer resources means higher student to teacher ratios, lower spending per student, and lower overall academic performance. These neighborhoods often lack the resources needed to help youth overcome risk factors. [3]

Minority youth

Minority youth, particularly African-Americans and Latino youth, face many barriers to self-sufficiency that white and Asian students are less likely to face. Racial discrimination often leads to violence, bullying, and also hinders youth employment opportunity. African-Americans and Latinos are more likely to live in high poverty environments characterized by underperforming schools with limited resources and therefore have a higher chance of academic failure. Immigrant youth also face several challenges with adapting to the culture and experience intensified problems such as language barriers and legal battles. [3]

Affluent youth

In addition to children "traditionally considered to be at risk", "preteens and teens from affluent, well-educated families" are also at risk. Despite their advantages in other areas, affluent youth have among "the highest rates of depression, substance abuse, anxiety disorders, somatic complaints, and unhappiness" Madeline Levine writes that this "should in no way minimize concern" for other at risk groups. [16] [17]

Early intervention

There are several different forms of interventions for at-risk youth. [18] Interventions are generally considered effective if they have positive impacts on individuals' risk behavior, academic achievement, pro-social behavior, sexual behavior, and psychological adjustment. [12] Effective interventions can also serve as a preventative measure for future risk behavior, and it can help at risk-youth avoid entering the juvenile systems. There is a significant correlation between high-risk youth and higher rates of juvenile system involvement. Through research and findings, factors such as low socio-economic status, race/ethnicity, gender, and psychosocial histories of mental health and substance abuse have resulted in an increased risk that a youth will encounter the juvenile system. [11] People have discovered the need for juvenile justice services, specifically community services to take preventive action and to support youth as they navigate entering and exiting the juvenile system.

Remediation

The sooner at-risk students are identified, the more likely that preventative "remediation" measures will be effective. Examples of remediation include: [19]

Resilience

Psychologists have recognized that many youth adjust properly despite being raised in high risk circumstances. This capacity to cope with adversity, even being strengthened by it, is crucial to developing resilience; or the human capacity to face, overcome, and ultimately be strengthened by life's adversities and challenges. [22]

Psychological resilience is an important character trait for youth trying to mitigate risk factors. Resilience is used to describe the qualities that aid in the successful adaptation, life-transition, and social competence of youth despite risk and adversity. Resilience is manifested by having a strong sense of purpose and a belief in success; including goal direction, education aspirations, motivation, persistence, and optimism. Getting youth involved in extracurricular activities is important in building resilience and remediation. Particularly, those involving cooperative approaches such as peer helping, cross age mentoring, and community service. [23] Data examined from a nationally funded study has shown that teachers can promote academic resilience in students at risk for failure in mathematics through creating safe school environments which emphasize support and the development of strong teacher-student relationships. These factors were associated with the academic resilience and achievement of low-income Latino, White, and African-American elementary school students. [24] Teachers can further contribute to a strong classroom environment for students who face risk factors by holding all students accountable to expectations that are both high and realistic for the given student. [25]

Childhood trauma is detrimental and can be damaging during emotional development. Overcoming trauma contributes significantly to resilience. Many youth that have experienced trauma have an inability to cope with and adjust to new surroundings. Trauma overwhelms one's ability to cope and may lead them to isolate against the fears of modern life, often viewing the world as a threatening or dangerous place. These students distrust others, including adults, and because of traumatic experiences rely on themselves to keep safe. New or unexpected stimuli can often trigger traumatic flash-backs. Slamming doors, loud announcements, students and teachers shouting can trigger instant terror within a child who has suffered from trauma. [26] Teachers are critical in nurturing and building resilience in at-risk students exposed to trauma. Although, being empowered to participate in their own healing, gives young people a sense of self-control, safety, and purpose. [27]

At-risk students globally

North America

Canada

Juvenile delinquency and school dropout are a significant problem in Canada. In 2010 37% of youth self-reported engaging in one or more delinquent behaviors such as acts of violence, acts against property, and the sale of drugs. Canadian boys are twice as likely as girls to engage in violent behavior but about equal in crimes against property. In 2010 the rate of those accused of a crime peaked at 18 years of age and generally decreased with age. School dropout rates between 2009 and 2010 were around 10% of young males and 7% of young women. Only 44% of children in foster care graduate from high school compared to 81% of their peers. [28]

Mexico

A large percentage of youth in Mexico are considered at-risk and many engage in negative behaviors. 30% of Mexican youth ages 12–24 drop out of school and remain unemployed and inactive after age 18. Another 30% of Mexican youths have never participated in any extra-curricular activities outside of a school setting. Many risk factors for Mexican youth are the same as those identified in the United States, however; poverty is a more prevalent influencing factor. [29]

Launched by the United States Agency for International Development (USAID) and the International Youth Foundation (YIF) the Youth:Work Mexico program focuses on putting youth to work and creating a safe space for disadvantaged youth. By the end of 2014 7,500 Mexican youth will have participated in youth camps and after school programs. Nearly 2,000 at-risk youth will have been prepared by job training programs. [30]

At-risk programs in the United States

Title I

Title I is one of the largest United States federal programs in K-12 education. Title I provides financial resources to schools, particularly those in low socio-economic communities, to ensure that low-income students meet challenging state academic standards. [31]

Big Brothers Big Sisters of America

Big Brothers Big Sisters of America is a program that establishes meaningful monitored mentoring between volunteers and at risk youth ages 6–18. Big Brothers Big Sisters is the largest donor and volunteer supported mentoring network in the United States. The organizations mission is to provide children facing adversity with strong, enduring, and professional one-to-one connections that forever change their lives for the better. [32]

Reading Rockets

Reading Rockets is a United States government funded project that supports the needs of at-risk youth by offering research based reading strategies, lessons, and activities designed to help children learn to read and read better. The program aims to help struggling readers build fluency, vocabulary, and comprehension skills. [33]

YMCA

YMCA, sometimes regionally known as The Y, is an organization in the US that promotes youth development, healthy living, and social responsibility. [34] [35] Over the years, YMCA has provided various programming, some directed towards at-risk youth. [36] YMCA has engaged with social issues such as racial solidarity, job training, and classes for people with disabilities. [37] [38]

See also

Related Research Articles

Peer pressure is a direct or indirect influence on peers, i.e., members of social groups with similar interests, experiences, or social statuses. Members of a peer group are more likely to influence a person's beliefs, values, religion and behavior. A group or individual may be encouraged and want to follow their peers by changing their attitudes, values or behaviors to conform to those of the influencing group or individual. For the individual affected by peer pressure, this can have both a positive or negative effect on them.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Juvenile delinquency</span> Illegal behavior by minors

Juvenile delinquency, also known as juvenile offending, is the act of participating in unlawful behavior as a minor or individual younger than the statutory age of majority. These acts would otherwise be considered crimes if the individuals committing them were older. The term delinquent usually refers to juvenile delinquency, and is also generalised to refer to a young person who behaves an unacceptable way.

School violence includes violence between school students as well as attacks by students on school staff and attacks by school staff on students. It encompasses physical violence, including student-on-student fighting, corporal punishment; psychological violence such as verbal abuse, and sexual violence, including rape and sexual harassment. It includes many forms of bullying and carrying weapons to school. The one or more perpetrators typically have more physical, social, and/or psychological power than the victim. It is a widely accepted serious societal problem in recent decades in many countries, especially where weapons such as guns or knives are involved.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Positive youth development</span>

Positive youth development (PYD) programs are designed to optimize youth developmental progress. This is sought through a positivistic approach that emphasizes the inherent potential, strengths, and capabilities youth hold. PYD differs from other approaches within youth development work in that it rejects an emphasis on trying to correct what is considered wrong with children's behavior or development, renouncing a problem-oriented lens. Instead, it seeks to cultivate various personal assets and external contexts known to be important to human development.

Oppositional defiant disorder (ODD) is listed in the DSM-5 under Disruptive, impulse-control, and conduct disorders and defined as "a pattern of angry/irritable mood, argumentative/defiant behavior, or vindictiveness". This behavior is usually targeted toward peers, parents, teachers, and other authority figures, including law enforcement officials. Unlike conduct disorder (CD), those with ODD do not generally show patterns of aggression towards random people, violence against animals, destruction of property, theft, or deceit. One-half of children with ODD also fulfill the diagnostic criteria for ADHD.

Youth mentoring is the process of matching mentors with young people who need or want a caring, responsible adult in their lives. Adult mentors are usually unrelated to the child or teen and work as volunteers through a community-, school-, or church-based social service program. The goal of youth mentoring programs is to improve the well-being of the child by providing a role model that can support the child academically, socially and/or personally. This goal can be accomplished through school work, communication, and/or activities. Goals and settings within a mentoring program vary by country because of cultural values.

Psychological resilience is the ability to cope mentally and emotionally with a crisis, or to return to pre-crisis status quickly.

Emotional and behavioral disorders refer to a disability classification used in educational settings that allows educational institutions to provide special education and related services to students who have displayed poor social and/or academic progress.

Childhood trauma is often described as serious adverse childhood experiences (ACEs). Children may go through a range of experiences that classify as psychological trauma; these might include neglect, abandonment, sexual abuse, emotional abuse, and physical abuse, witnessing abuse of a sibling or parent, or having a mentally ill parent. These events have profound psychological, physiological, and sociological impacts and can have negative, lasting effects on health and well-being such as unsocial behaviors, attention deficit hyperactivity disorder (ADHD), and sleep disturbances. Similarly, children whose mothers have experienced traumatic or stressful events during pregnancy have an increased risk of mental health disorders and other neurodevelopmental disorders.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Residential treatment center</span> Live-in healthcare facility

A residential treatment center (RTC), sometimes called a rehab, is a live-in health care facility providing therapy for substance use disorders, mental illness, or other behavioral problems. Residential treatment may be considered the "last-ditch" approach to treating abnormal psychology or psychopathology.

After-school activities, also known as after-school programs or after-school care, started in the early 1900s mainly just as supervision of students after the final school bell. Today, after-school programs do much more. There is a focus on helping students with school work but can be beneficial to students in other ways. An after-school program, today, will not limit its focus on academics but with a holistic sense of helping the student population. An after-school activity is any organized program that youth or adult learner voluntary can participate in outside of the traditional school day. Some programs are run by a primary or secondary school, while others are run by externally funded non-profit or commercial organizations. After-school youth programs can occur inside a school building or elsewhere in the community, for instance at a community center, church, library, or park. After-school activities are a cornerstone of concerted cultivation, which is a style of parenting that emphasizes children gaining leadership experience and social skills through participating in organized activities. Such children are believed by proponents to be more successful in later life, while others consider too many activities to indicate overparenting. While some research has shown that structured after-school programs can lead to better test scores, improved homework completion, and higher grades, further research has questioned the effectiveness of after-school programs at improving youth outcomes such as externalizing behavior and school attendance. Additionally, certain activities or programs have made strides in closing the achievement gap, or the gap in academic performance between white students and students of color as measured by standardized tests. Though the existence of after-school activities is relatively universal, different countries implement after-school activities differently, causing after-school activities to vary on a global scale.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Substance abuse prevention</span> Measures to prevent the consumption of licit and illicit drugs

Substance abuse prevention, also known as drug abuse prevention, is a process that attempts to prevent the onset of substance use or limit the development of problems associated with using psychoactive substances. Prevention efforts may focus on the individual or their surroundings. A concept that is known as "environmental prevention" focuses on changing community conditions or policies so that the availability of substances is reduced as well as the demand. Individual Substance Abuse Prevention, also known as drug abuse prevention involves numerous different sessions depending on the individual to help cease or reduce the use of substances. The time period to help a specific individual can vary based upon many aspects of an individual. The type of Prevention efforts should be based upon the individual's necessities which can also vary. Substance use prevention efforts typically focus on minors and young adults – especially between 12–35 years of age. Substances typically targeted by preventive efforts include alcohol, tobacco, marijuana, inhalants, coke, methamphetamine, steroids, club drugs, and opioids. Community advocacy against substance use is imperative due to the significant increase in opioid overdoses in the United States alone. It has been estimated that about one hundred and thirty individuals continue to lose their lives daily due to opioid overdoses alone.

Youth suicide is when a young person, generally categorized as someone below the legal age of majority, deliberately ends their own life. Rates of youth suicide and attempted youth suicide in Western societies and other countries are high. Youth suicide attempts are more common among girls, but adolescent males are the ones who usually carry out suicide. Suicide rates in youths have nearly tripled between the 1960s and 1980s. For example, in Australia suicide is second only to motor vehicle accidents as its leading cause of death for people aged 15 to 25.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Communities That Care</span>

Communities That Care (CTC) is a program of the Center for Substance Abuse Prevention (CSAP) in the office of the United States Government's Substance Abuse and Mental Health Services Administration (SAMHSA). CTC is a coalition-based prevention operating system that uses a public health approach to prevent youth problem behaviors such as violence, delinquency, school drop out and substance abuse. Using strategic consultation, training, and research-based tools, CTC is designed to help community stakeholders and decision makers understand and apply information about risk and protective factors, and programs that are proven to make a difference in promoting healthy youth development, in order to most effectively address the specific issues facing their community's youth.

Bullying is abusive social interaction between peers and can include aggression, harassment, and violence. Bullying is typically repetitive and enacted by those who are in a position of power over the victim. A growing body of research illustrates a significant relationship between bullying and emotional intelligence.

School-based family counseling (SBFC) is an integrated approach to mental health intervention that focuses on both school and family in order to help children overcome personal problems and succeed at school. SBFC is practiced by a wide variety of mental health professionals, including: psychologists, social workers, school counselors, psychiatrists, and marriage and family therapists, as well as special education teachers. What they all share in common is the belief that children who are struggling in school can be best helped by interventions that link family and school. SBFC is typically practiced at the school site, but may be based in a community mental health agency that works in close collaboration with schools.

School climate refers to the quality and character of school life. It has been described as "the heart and soul of the school ... that essence of a school that leads a child, a teacher, and an administrator to love the school and to look forward to being there each school day." A positive school climate helps people feel socially, emotionally and physically safe in schools. It includes students', parents' and school personnel's norms, beliefs, relationships, teaching and learning practices, as well as organizational and structural features of the school. According to the National School Climate Council, a sustainable, positive school climate promotes students' academic and social emotional development.

Adverse childhood experiences (ACEs) include childhood emotional, physical, or sexual abuse and household dysfunction during childhood. The categories are verbal abuse, physical abuse, contact sexual abuse, a battered mother, household substance abuse, household mental illness, incarcerated household members, and parental separation or divorce. The experiences chosen were based upon prior research that has shown to them to have significant negative health or social implications, and for which substantial efforts are being made in the public and private sector to reduce their frequency of occurrence. Scientific evidence is mounting that such adverse childhood experiences (ACEs) have a profound long-term effect on health. Research shows that exposure to abuse and to serious forms of family dysfunction in the childhood family environment are likely to activate the stress response, thus potentially disrupting the developing nervous, immune, and metabolic systems of children. ACEs are associated with lifelong physical and mental health problems that emerge in adolescence and persist into adulthood, including cardiovascular disease, chronic obstructive pulmonary disease, autoimmune diseases, substance abuse, and depression.

Education in emergencies and conflict areas is the process of teaching and promoting quality education for children, youth, and adults in crisis-affected areas. Such emergency settings include: conflicts, pandemics and disasters caused by natural hazards. Strengthened education systems protects children and youth from attack, abuse, and exploitation, supports peace-building, and provides physical and psychological safety to children. In times of crisis, education helps build resilience and social cohesion across communities, and is fundamental to sustained recovery.

Community crime prevention relates to interventions designed to bring reform to the social conditions that influence, and encourage, offending in residential communities. Community crime prevention has a focus on both the social and local institutions found within communities which can influence crime rates, specifically juvenile delinquency.

References

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  29. ↑ Cunningham, Wendy; Bagby, Emilie (1 June 2010). "Factors that Predispose Youth to Risk in Mexico and Chile" (PDF). Policy Research Working Papers. doi:10.1596/1813-9450-5333. hdl:10986/3819. S2CID   54805149.{{cite journal}}: Cite journal requires |journal= (help)
  30. ↑ "Youth Work Mexico" International youth Foundation. Retrieved November.2014
  31. ↑ U.S. Department of Education Retrieved November.2014.
  32. ↑ Changing Perspectives, Changing Lives." Big Brothers Big Sisters. Big Brothers Big Sisters of America, n.d. Web. Retrieved 03 Nov. 2014.
  33. ↑ "Reading Rockets." Reading Rockets. WETA Public Broadcasting, 2014. Web. Retrieved 02 Nov. 2014.
  34. ↑ The YMCA. Web. Retrieved 5 October 2016.
  35. ↑ "Young Men's Christian Association." Funk & Wagnalls New World Encyclopedia, 2017, p. 1p.
  36. ↑ O'Donnell, Julie; Kirkner, Sandra L. (2016). "Helping Low-Income Urban Youth Make the Transition to Early Adulthood: A Retrospective Study of the YMCA Youth Institute". Afterschool Matters. ERIC   EJ1095926.
  37. ↑ Mjagkij, Nina (2014). Light In The Darkness: African Americans and the YMCA, 1852-1946. University Press of Kentucky. ISBN   978-0-8131-5816-7.[ page needed ]
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Bibliography

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