Bahamian pineyards

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Bahamian pineyards
Pinus caribaea bahamensis USFWS.jpg
South Andros, The Bahamas
Ecoregion NT0301.png
Ecoregion territory (in red)
Ecology
Realm Neotropical
Biome tropical and subtropical coniferous forests
Borders
Geography
Area2,100 km2 (810 sq mi)
Countries
Conservation
Conservation status Critical/endangered

The Bahamian pineyards are a tropical and subtropical coniferous forest ecoregion in the Bahamas and the Turks and Caicos Islands.

Contents

Geography

The Bahamian pineyards cover an area of 2,100 km2 (810 sq mi). [1] [2] Pineyards are found on four of the northern islands in the Bahamas: Andros, Abaco, Grand Bahama, where they cover half of the island, [3] and New Providence, as well as the Caicos Islands.

Origin and history

Despite having a rich modern flora and fauna and being critically important to native and endemic species of the Bahamas, preserved pollen records collected from sinkholes indicate that the pineyards, or at least the ones of the northern Bahamas (Abaco, Grand Bahama, New Providence, and Andros) have a largely anthropogenic origin. Prior to the arrival of the Lucayan people, the northern Bahamas were originally covered in Bahamian dry forests composed primarily of poisonwood (Metopium toxiferum), gumbo-limbo (Bursera simaruba), and Fabaceae, Arecaceae, Eugenia , and Solanum species, with a unique reptile-dominated faunal community: the top herbivore of this habitat was the extinct Albury's tortoise ( Chelonoidis alburyorum ) and the top predator was the now-extirpated Cuban crocodile (Crocodylus rhombifer). The presence of conifers like Pinus and Juniperus was likely minimal and localized around this time. [4]

Following the arrival of the Lucayans around 830 CE, large reptiles became extinct or extirpated within 1–2 centuries, and the original hardwood forests were cleared between 875 and 1090 CE by increasing harvesting for firewood and a newly introduced fire regime for the purposes of cassava cultivation, leading to the islands having a more open habitat increasingly dominated by weedy, secondary-successional species such as southern bayberry (Myrica cerifera), West Indian nettle tree (Trema lamarckianum) and Vachellia species. Pollen records indicate that the pine population significantly increased after 970 CE, with the modern pyrogenic pine forests being established by 1200 CE. An expansion of Barbados juniper (Juniperus barbadensis) also happened at the expense of the pines between 1400 and 1500. [4]

Between 1510 and 1765, after most of the Lucayans had been enslaved by the Spaniards and taken to Hispaniola, a series of hurricanes led to the inundation of most of the low-lying pineyards with these being taken over by mangroves, causing the pineyards to be restricted to upland areas. However, there was a new expansion of pineyards after the American Revolution when Loyalists took over the islands and reintroduced a fire regime for agricultural opportunities. However, over next three centuries, human activities post-colonization again lead to a decline in the extent of the pineyards. [4]

Flora

Pineyards are dominated by Bahamian pine (Pinus caribaea var. bahamensis), while pinepink ( Bletia purpurea ), bushy beard grass ( Andropogon glomeratus ), southern bracken fern ( Pteridium aquilinum ), Florida clover ash ( Tetrazygia bicolor ), Bahamian trumpet tree ( Tabebuia bahamensis ), West Indian snowberry ( Chiococca alba ), devil's gut ( Cassytha filiformis ), poisonwood ( Metopium toxiferum ), coontie ( Zamia integrifolia ) and thatch palm ( Coccothrinax argentata ) grow in the understory. Without regular wildfires, pineyards are supplanted by broadleafed coppice. Young Bahamian pines require extensive amounts of sunlight to grow, and are resistant to fire once they become adults. [5]

Fauna

Fauna found in the pine forests include reptiles, such as rock iguanas ( Cyclura sp.) and boas ( Epicrates sp.), and birds, such as the West Indian woodpecker (Melanerpes superciliaris), Bahama woodstar (Calliphlox evelynae), Bahama yellowthroat (Geothlypis rostrata), the possibly-extinct Bahama nuthatch (Sitta insularis), Bahama oriole (Icterus northropi), Bahama warbler (Setophaga flavescens) and Bahama swallow (Tachycineta cyaneoviridis). Kirtland's warblers (Dendroica kirtlandii) migrate every year from jack pine forests in the Lower Peninsula of Michigan to spend the winter in the Bahamian pineyards. [6] The only mammal found is the buffy flower bat (Erophylla sezekorni). Many of these species are endemic to this habitat and depend on the pines, and are threatened by activities such as deforestation and storm damage that have led to declines in the extent of the forest.

Threats

Increased logging of junipers after colonization and the pines themselves after the 20th century has again lead to a decline in the extent of the pineyards, which has been compounded by invasive species such as the beach sheoak (Casuarina equisetifolia) and the increasing frequency of hurricanes due to climate change; Hurricanes Frances, Jeanne, and especially Dorian have all dealt massive, lasting damage to the pineyards. [4] At least one species of bird, the Bahama nuthatch (Sitta insularis) may have been driven to extinction in 2019 as a result of Hurricanes Matthew and Dorian; a distinct population of the Bahama oriole from Abaco was also extirpated in the 1990s following Hurricane Andrew. [7] [8] Evidence indicates that tropical hardwood forests such as the ones that formerly covered the Bahamas are naturally much more resilient to hurricane damage than pine-dominated ones; due to this, the special vulnerability of the pineyards ecosystem to climatic extremes may be due to its anthropogenic origin. [4]

See also

Related Research Articles

<span class="mw-page-title-main">The Bahamas</span> Country in North America

The Bahamas, officially the Commonwealth of The Bahamas, is a country in North America. It is an island country within the Lucayan Archipelago of the West Indies in the Atlantic Ocean. It contains 97% of the Lucayan Archipelago's land area and 88% of its population. The archipelagic state consists of more than 3,000 islands, cays, and islets in the Atlantic Ocean, and is located north of Cuba and northwest of the island of Hispaniola and the Turks and Caicos Islands, southeast of the U.S. state of Florida, and east of the Florida Keys. The capital is Nassau on the island of New Providence. The Royal Bahamas Defence Force describes The Bahamas' territory as encompassing 470,000 km2 (180,000 sq mi) of ocean space.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Geography of the Bahamas</span>

The Bahamas are a group of about 700 islands and cays in the western Atlantic Ocean, of which only between 30 and 40 are inhabited. The largest of the islands is Andros Island, located north of Cuba and 200 kilometres southeast of Florida. The Bimini islands are to its northwest. To the North is the island of Grand Bahama, home to the second-largest city in the country, Freeport. The island of Great Abaco is to its east. In the far south is the island of Great Inagua, the second-largest island in the country. Other notable islands include Eleuthera, Cat Island, San Salvador Island, Acklins, Crooked Island, and Mayaguana. Nassau is the capital and largest city, located on New Providence. The islands have a tropical savannah climate, moderated by the Gulf Stream. The total size is 13,878 km2 (5,358 sq mi). Due to the many widespread islands it has the 41st largest Exclusive Economic Zone of 654,715 km2 (252,787 sq mi).

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Kirtland's warbler</span> Species of bird

Kirtland's warbler, also known in Michigan by the common name jack pine bird, or the jack pine warbler, is a small songbird of the New World warbler family (Parulidae). Nearly extinct just 50 years ago, populations have recovered due to the conservation efforts of Phil Huber and the U.S. Forest Service. It requires large areas, greater than 160 acres, of dense young jack pine for its breeding habitat. This habitat was historically created by wildfire, but today is created through the harvest of mature jack pine, and planting of jack pine seedlings.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Andros, Bahamas</span> Archipelago of The Bahamas

Andros Island is an archipelago within The Bahamas, the largest of the Bahamian Islands. Politically considered a single island, Andros in total has an area greater than all the other 700 Bahamian islands combined. The land area of Andros consists of hundreds of small islets and cays connected by mangrove estuaries and tidal swamplands, together with three major islands: North Andros, Mangrove Cay, and South Andros. The three main islands are separated by bights, estuaries that trifurcate the island from east to west. It is 167 kilometres (104 mi) long by 64 km (40 mi) wide at the widest point.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Abaco Islands</span> Group of islands in the Bahamas

The Abaco Islands lie in the northern Bahamas, about 193 miles east of Miami, Florida. The main islands are Great Abaco and Little Abaco, which is just west of Great Abaco's northern tip. There are several smaller barrier cays, of which the northernmost are Walker's Cay and its sister island Grand Cay. To the south, the next inhabited islands are Spanish Cay and Green Turtle Cay, with its settlement of New Plymouth, Great Guana Cay, private Scotland Cay, Man-O-War Cay, and Elbow Cay, with its settlement of Hope Town. Southernmost are Tilloo Cay and Lubbers Quarters. Also of note off Abaco's western shore is Gorda Cay, now a Disney-owned island and cruise ship stop renamed Castaway Cay. Also in the vicinity is Moore's Island. On the Big Island of Abaco is Marsh Harbour, the Abacos' commercial hub and the Bahamas' third-largest city, plus the resort area of Treasure Cay. Both have airports. A few mainland settlements of significance are Coopers Town and Fox Town in the north and Cherokee and Sandy Point in the south. Administratively, the Abaco Islands constitute seven of the 31 Local Government Districts of the Bahamas: Grand Cay, North Abaco, Green Turtle Cay, Central Abaco, South Abaco, Moore's Island, and Hope Town.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Grand Bahama</span> Island

Grand Bahama is the northernmost of the islands of the Bahamas, with the town of West End located 56 nautical miles east of Palm Beach, Florida. It is the third largest island in the Bahamas island chain of approximately 700 islands and 2,400 cays. The island is roughly 530 square miles (1,400 km2) in area and approximately 153 kilometres (95 mi) long west to east and 24 kilometres (15 mi) at its widest point north to south. Administratively, the island consists of the Freeport Bonded Area and the districts of East Grand Bahama and West Grand Bahama. Nearly half of the homes on the island were damaged or destroyed in early September 2019 by Hurricane Dorian.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Freeport, Bahamas</span> City in Grand Bahama, The Bahamas

Freeport is a city, district and free trade zone on the island of Grand Bahama of the northwest Bahamas. In 1955, Wallace Groves, a Virginian financier with lumber interests in Grand Bahama, was granted 20,000 hectares of pineyard with substantial areas of swamp and scrubland by the Bahamian government with a mandate to economically develop the area. Freeport has grown to become the second most populous city in the Bahamas.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Caribbean pine</span> Species of conifer, Caribbean pine

The Caribbean pine is a hard pine species native to Central America and the northern West Indies. It belongs to subsection Australes in subgenus Pinus. It inhabits tropical and subtropical coniferous forests such as Bahamian pineyards, in both lowland savannas and montane forests.

<i>Tyto pollens</i> Extinct species of bird

Tyto pollens is an extinct giant barn owl which lived in the Bahamas during the last Ice Age.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Bahama swallow</span> Species of bird

The Bahama swallow is an endangered swallow endemic to The Bahamas.

The Caribbean bioregion is a biogeographic region that includes the islands of the Caribbean Sea and nearby Atlantic islands, which share a fauna, flora and mycobiota distinct from surrounding bioregions.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Outline of the Bahamas</span> Overview of and topical guide to The Bahamas

The following outline is provided as an overview of and topical guide to The Bahamas:

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Index of the Bahamas–related articles</span>

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<span class="mw-page-title-main">South Florida rocklands</span> Tropical and subtropical moist broadleaf forests ecoregion of Florida, United States

The South Florida rocklands ecoregion, in the tropical and subtropical moist broadleaf forests biome, occurs in southern Florida and the Florida Keys in the United States, where they would naturally cover an area of 2,100 km2 (810 sq mi). These forests form on limestone outcrops with very thin soil; the higher elevation separating them from other habitats such as coastal marshes and marl prairies. On mainland Florida, rocklands exist primarily on the Miami Rock Ridge, which extends from the Miami River south to Everglades National Park. South Florida rocklands are further divided into pine rocklands and rockland hammocks.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Bahama oriole</span> Species of songbird

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<span class="mw-page-title-main">Bahama warbler</span> Species of bird

The Bahama warbler is an endangered species of bird in the family Parulidae that is endemic to The Bahamas.

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References

  1. "Bahamian pine forests". Terrestrial Ecoregions. World Wildlife Fund. Retrieved 2009-01-15.
  2. "Fire Management Assessment of the Caribbean Pine (Pinus caribea) Forest Ecosystems on Andros, Abaco and Eleuthera Islands, Bahamas" (PDF). TNC Global Fire Initiative. The Nature Conservancy. September 2004. Archived from the original (PDF) on 2008-12-01. Retrieved 2009-01-16.
  3. Moultrie, Erika. "The Ecosystems of Grand Bahama Island". Grand Bahama Island Tourism Board. Retrieved 2009-01-15.
  4. 1 2 3 4 5 Fall, Patricia L.; Hengstum, Peter J. van; Lavold-Foote, Lisa; Donnelly, Jeffrey P.; Albury, Nancy A.; Tamalavage, Anne E. (2021-03-09). "Human arrival and landscape dynamics in the northern Bahamas". Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences. 118 (10): e2015764118. Bibcode:2021PNAS..11820157F. doi: 10.1073/pnas.2015764118 . ISSN   0027-8424. PMC   7958357 . PMID   33649214.
  5. "Ecosystems Of The Bahamas". The Commonwealth of The Bahamas. Retrieved 2009-01-15.
  6. World Wildlife Fund, ed. (2001). "Bahamian pine forests". WildWorld Ecoregion Profile. National Geographic Society. Archived from the original on 2010-03-08. Retrieved 2009-01-15.
  7. "Hurricane Dorian May Have Caused a Critically Endangered Bird to Go Extinct".
  8. "Bahama Oriole". American Bird Conservancy. Retrieved 2021-03-11.