Big Five personality traits and culture

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The Big Five personality traits are Openness, Conscientiousness, Extraversion, Agreeableness, and Neuroticism. [1] The Big Five Personality is a test that people can take to learn more about their personality in relation to the five personality traits. [1] Cross-cultural psychology as a discipline examines the way that human behavior is different and/or similar across different cultures. One important and widely studied area in this subfield of psychology is personality, particularly the study of Big Five. [1] The Big Five model of personality (also known as the Five Factor Model) has become the most extensively studied model of personality and has broad support, starting in the United States and later in many different cultures. [2] The Big Five model of personality (also known as the Five Factor Model or the Big Five Inventory) started in the United States, and through the years has been translated into many different languages and has been used in many countries. [1] Some researchers were attempting to determine the differences in how other cultures perceive this model. [1] Some research shows that the Big Five holds up across cultures even with its origin in the English language. [3] However, there is also some evidence which suggests that the Big Five traits may not be sufficient to completely explain personality in other cultures. [4] In countries such as South America and East Asia, the results weren't as accurate because they weren't as open as some people in other countries are. [1]

Contents

Supportive research

Research suggests that the same five-factor structure of personality can be found in multiple other countries, based on a translated version of the Revised NEO Personality Inventory. [5] Over the past decade, studies on the validity of the Five-Factor Model using translations of the Revised NEO Personality Inventory have found broad support across many different studies and in many different countries; in earlier studies, Extraversion and Neuroticism were reported as stable personality scales across several cultures, including German, Dutch, French, Japanese, Chinese, and Filipino samples. [6]

Further research found support for the entire Five-Factor Model in Chinese, Dutch, Italian, Hungarian, German, Australian, South African, Canadian, Finnish, Polish, Portuguese, Israeli, Korean, Japanese, and Filipino samples, in addition to other samples. [6] Across multiple studies, factor analyses of translations of the Revised NEO Personality Inventory in languages from different language families consistently load on five factors that largely correspond to the Big Five personality traits. [6] Additionally, the Big Five traits have been found in the personality ratings of observers in over 50 cultures, indicating that the previous findings were not dependent merely on ratings of the self. [7] Overall, this body of work has established the validity of the Five-Factor model cross-culturally, potentially providing evidence for the Five-Factor Model as a universal taxonomy of personality structure. [5]

Comparisons

One approach psychologists have taken when examining Big Five traits in different cultures has been to examine either similarities or differences between cultures. Generally, researchers examine the average levels of a trait (or multiple traits) across an entire culture to make comparisons cross-culturally. [8]

Similarities

There are many similarities in Big Five trait expression across cultures. For example, differences between men and women in Big Five traits, although small compared to variation within gender, do seem to exist consistently across a number of cultures. In general, women tend to score higher on neuroticism and agreeableness. [9] Additionally, longitudinal studies have found consistency in personality changes that occur across the lifetime, in both adults and adolescents. [10] [11] Research in Big Five traits in American and Flemish teens showed similar changes in personality from ages 12 to 18. [11] In addition, the period from young adulthood to middle adulthood is associated with increases in Conscientiousness and Agreeableness and decreases in Neuroticism, Openness, and Extraversion in several countries, including the United States, Germany, Italy, Portugal, Croatia, and South Korea. [10]

Differences

It is also important to note that when examining the average personality traits of individuals in cultural groups, differences between cultures seem to exist. [12] Some research compares one culture against another culture on a specific Big Five personality trait; Filipinos, for example, score relatively low on Neuroticism on average, compared to other cultures measured, while scoring in the middle of the scale on Extraversion. [12] Americans, New Zealanders, and Canadians score higher on Extraversion, while scoring moderately on Neuroticism. [12] These differences, however, exist on average, and there is still a large amount of variability in Big Five personality traits that exists within a particular culture. [12] Gender differences in personality tend to be larger in developed societies (such as France and the United States) compared to less-developed countries (such as Zimbabwe and Malaysia). [4] [9] However, although these findings are quite robust, one consideration is that these differences between cultures might be the result of translation errors, differences in self-presentation styles, or even genetic differences. [4] [6]

Furthermore, although broad evidence suggests that the Big Five traits do measure meaningful constructs across a great deal of cultures, it is also true that expressions of mean levels of personality are necessarily influenced by culture. [6] That is to say, all individuals scoring high on a certain Big Five personality trait such as Extraversion are likely to enjoy socialization with others, but where, when, and with whom they socialize is necessarily influenced by their cultural milieu. [6] Thus, it may be most productive to think of the Five Factor Model as a framework for beginning to explore systematically individual differences in behavior within a particular culture. [6]

Criticism

Some controversy exists over whether or not the Big Five are relevant to all other cultures, especially given that the Big Five were developed via factor analysis from English words. [13] The factor analysis helped determine that there are only five factors. [13] Although support for the Big Five across cultures is quite robust, it is unclear whether or not the Big Five personality traits are the best possible measure of personality across all cultures. [1] Another model that can measure personality is the Myers Briggs. [14] Some additional controversy to the Five Factor Model is that this model can measure up to relating to personalities which implies that most people think this is the best model. [15] One problem that some people, specifically psychologists, have with the personality traits is how accurate they are within other cultures. [1] Some researchers suggest that important aspects of certain cultures which could include the personality traits of honesty and humility are not captured by the Five Factor Model. [13] [15] The Five Factor Model is used in several cultures throughout North America, South America, Europe, Africa, and Asia. [1]

Throughout the years, the Five Factor Model has experienced many changes as it has developed because it originally only had three factors within Eysenck's model which only included Extraversion, Psychoticism, and Neuroticism. [15] Some parts of the Five Factor Model have been challenged or changed by other researchers based on their prior knowledge. [15] Some researchers tend to question the personality traits included in this because some believe that the traits should be more specific. [15] Most of the controversy with the Five Factor Model involves the traits and personality, as well as the origin of these five factors. [16] Some researchers don't believe that the Five Factor Model uses personality correctly. [16]

Several questions that researchers have asked about controversy about the Five Factor Model is if people can understand it, if the measures are accurate, and if it represents personality correctly. [13] The measures for the Five Factor Model include the Big Five Inventory which has 44 items to measure the five personality traits. [1] The Five Factor Model is questioned if people can understand it because there is controversy if more personality traits should be included in this model or not. [13] Some researchers question if the measures are accurate because of the variables that are used and the bias that is often found within this model. [13] There are even some researchers that want to study if the Five Factor Model represents personality correctly, since some researchers believe that there should be more or fewer categories of personality traits involved. [13]

HEXACO model of personality

One proposed alternative to the Big Five that has been developed via cross-cultural research is the HEXACO model. [17] This model builds on the research of the Big Five traits, with the novel addition of a trait named Honesty-Humility. [18] Individuals high in the trait of honesty-humility are associated with the characteristics of straightforwardness, modesty, and fairness. [18] In addition, the HEXACO model contains slightly rotated versions of two of the Big Five traits (Agreeableness and Neuroticism) such that sentimentality/toughness becomes part of the old Neuroticism trait (and renamed Emotionality) and anger/even-temper becomes associated with the new Agreeableness trait. [18] This rotation creates less overlap among the six personality traits of the HEXACO, and allows for better prediction of behaviors such as deceit without hostility (e.g. social monitoring). [18] Support for the HEXACO model has been found in multiple countries, including Dutch, French, German, Italian, Korean, Polish, and English samples. [18]

Chinese Personality Assessment Inventory

Chinese psychologists have attempted to develop an indigenous measure of personality, named the Chinese Personality Assessment Inventory (CPAI). [4] Traits in the CPAI model have also collectively been referred to as "Interpersonal Relatedness," and include:

Support for this model of personality was originally developed in studies in mainland China and Hong Kong, China, but the existence of the Interpersonal Relatedness dimension of personality has also been found in samples from Singapore, Hawaii, and the Midwestern United States. [8]

Enneagram of Personality

The Enneagram of Personality includes nine different personality types which helps people to better understand their personality and character. [14] The Enneagram types include types one through nine, and each type has different characteristics associated with it. [14] There is evidence that the Enneagram has been used by therapists to help their clients. [14] [20] Type one is the reformer with traits such as principled and controlled. Type two is the Helper with traits of generous and people-pleasing. Type three is the Achiever being driven and image conscious. Type 4 is the Individualist with traits such as dramatic and self absorbed. Type five is the Innovator being innovative and perceptive. Type six is the Loyalist who is described as responsible and anxious. Type seven is the Enthusiast with characteristics such as spontaneous and scattered. Type eight is the Challenger described as self-confident and confrontational. Finally the last type is type nine the Peacemaker with traits such as agreeable and receptive. [20] The Enneagram can be applied to people of all genders, races, ages, religion, etc. The goal of the Enneagram types is to identify a type based on the type as a whole. This includes the core fear of type, the positive characteristics, and the negative. It is designed to help one see themselves on a deeper level. [21]

Differences

The Enneagram model focuses more on an individual's characteristics whereas the Five Factor Model focuses on the five specific traits. [14] Another difference between the Five Factor Model and the Enneagram is that the Enneagram relates to people in more of a spiritual way, and even can encourage personal growth. [14] The Enneagram is also greatly used in the workplace and is used a tool for team building. The different types allows colleagues to understand each other better. The Enneagram has also become very prominent in career counseling and is used as a tool to discover careers most agreeable with a person based on their type. [22] The Enneagram uses language that is more related to Cognitive Behavioral Therapy and each of the Enneagram types had a different role. [14] Each Enneagram type includes multiple characteristics. [14] The Enneagram hasn't been used as often cross-culturally. [14]

A limitation of the Enneagram types and individuals can score highly in multiple types. In the model the highest one is chosen but it could only be a score difference between two types. There needs to be future research on what it means for an individual to score highly in multiple types. [20]

Another limitation of the Enneagram types is when tested, the predictive validity of the different types offered only a slight improvement over chance, in a study conducted at Loyola Chicago. [23]

Other possible models

Other researchers have found different personality dimensions that may exists in different cultural contexts. [8] For example, one study of a Filipino sample used both indigenous Filipino personality scales and the NEO-PI-R, and although there was overlap between the Filipino scales and the Five Factor Model, researchers also found indigenous factors such as Pagkamadaldal (Social Curiosity) and Pagkamapagsapalaran (Risk-Taking) that had predictive power greater than the Five Factor Model alone. [8] [24] Other research using indigenous approaches to traits has taken place in countries such as India, Korea, and Greece. [8] A Chinese factor analysis of traits in 2009 found seven factors (three or four of which resembled Big Five traits). A similar study in Spain in 1997 found seven Spanish personality factors. However, the seven factors were not the same across the two countries. [4] Thus, it is clear that although there is strong support for the Big Five across cultures, some research suggests the existence of other traits besides simply the Big Five, which may ultimately improve our understanding of personality across different cultures.

Related Research Articles

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Personality</span> Psychological characteristics of an individual

Personality is a structure gathering interrelated behavioral, cognitive and emotional patterns that biological and environmental factors influence; these interrelated patterns are relatively stable over time periods, but they change over the entire lifetime. While there is no generally agreed-upon definition of personality, most theories focus on motivation and psychological interactions with the environment one is surrounded by. Trait-based personality theories, such as those defined by Raymond Cattell, define personality as traits that predict an individual's behavior. On the other hand, more behaviorally-based approaches define personality through learning and habits. Nevertheless, most theories view personality as relatively stable.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Trait theory</span> Approach to the study of human personality

In psychology, trait theory is an approach to the study of human personality. Trait theorists are primarily interested in the measurement of traits, which can be defined as habitual patterns of behavior, thought, and emotion. According to this perspective, traits are aspects of personality that are relatively stable over time, differ across individuals, are relatively consistent over situations, and influence behaviour. Traits are in contrast to states, which are more transitory dispositions.

Conscientiousness is the personality trait of being careful or diligent. Conscientiousness implies a desire to do a task well, and to take obligations to others seriously. Conscientious people tend to be efficient and organized as opposed to easy-going and disorderly. They tend to show self-discipline, act dutifully, and aim for achievement; they display planned rather than spontaneous behavior; and they are generally dependable. Conscientiousness manifests in characteristic behaviors such as being neat, systematic, careful, thorough, and deliberate.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Big Five personality traits</span> Personality model consisting of five broad dimensions

The Big Five personality traits is a suggested taxonomy, or grouping, for personality traits, developed from the 1980s onward in psychological trait theory.

In the study of psychology, neuroticism has been considered a fundamental personality trait. In the Big Five approach to personality trait theory, individuals with high scores for neuroticism are more likely than average to be moody and to experience such feelings as anxiety, worry, fear, anger, frustration, envy, jealousy, pessimism, guilt, depressed mood, and loneliness. Such people are thought to respond worse to stressors and are more likely to interpret ordinary situations, such as minor frustrations, as appearing hopelessly difficult. The responses can include maladaptive behaviors, such as dissociation, procrastination, substance use, etc., which aids in relieving the negative emotions and generating positive ones.

Agreeableness is a personality trait that manifests as behavior that is perceived as kind, sympathetic, cooperative, warm, frank, and considerate. In contemporary personality psychology, agreeableness is one of the five major dimensions of personality structure, reflecting individual differences in cooperation and social harmony.

Openness to experience is one of the domains which are used to describe human personality in the Five Factor Model. Openness involves six facets, or dimensions: active imagination (fantasy), aesthetic sensitivity, attentiveness to inner feelings, preference for variety (adventurousness), intellectual curiosity, and challenging authority. A great deal of psychometric research has demonstrated that these facets or qualities are significantly correlated. Thus, openness can be viewed as a global personality trait consisting of a set of specific traits, habits, and tendencies that cluster together.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Extraversion and introversion</span> Personality trait

The traits of extraversion and introversion are a central dimension in some human personality theories. The terms introversion and extraversion were introduced into psychology by Carl Jung, although both the popular understanding and current psychological usage vary. Extraversion tends to be manifested in outgoing, talkative, energetic behavior, whereas introversion is manifested in more reflective and reserved behavior. Jung defined introversion as an "attitude-type characterised by orientation in life through subjective psychic contents", and extraversion as "an attitude-type characterised by concentration of interest on the external object".

<span class="mw-page-title-main">HEXACO model of personality structure</span> Six-dimensional model of human personality

The HEXACO model of personality structure is a six-dimensional model of human personality that was created by Ashton and Lee and explained in their book, The H Factor of Personality, based on findings from a series of lexical studies involving several European and Asian languages. The six factors, or dimensions, include Honesty-Humility (H), Emotionality (E), Extraversion (X), Agreeableness (A), Conscientiousness (C), and Openness to Experience (O). Each factor is composed of traits with characteristics indicating high and low levels of the factor. The HEXACO model was developed through similar methods as other trait taxonomies and builds on the work of Costa and McCrae and Goldberg. The model, therefore, shares several common elements with other trait models. However, the HEXACO model is unique mainly due to the addition of the Honesty-Humility dimension.

The Revised NEO Personality Inventory is a personality inventory that assesses an individual on five dimensions of personality, the so-called Big Five personality traits. These traits are openness to experience, conscientiousness, extraversion, agreeableness, and neuroticism. In addition, the NEO PI-R also reports on six subcategories of each Big Five personality trait.

Within personality psychology, it has become common practice to use factor analysis to derive personality traits. The Big Five model proposes that there are five basic personality traits. These traits were derived in accordance with the lexical hypothesis. These five personality traits: Extraversion, Neuroticism, Agreeableness, Conscientiousness and Openness to Experience have garnered widespread support.

In psychology, a facet is a specific and unique aspect of a broader personality trait. Both the concept and the term "facet" were introduced by Paul Costa and Robert McCrae in the first edition of the NEO-Personality Inventory (NEO-PI) Manual. Facets were originally elaborated only for the neuroticism, openness to experience, and extraversion traits; Costa and McCrae introduced facet scales for the agreeableness and conscientiousness traits in the Revised NEO-PI. Each of the Big Five personality traits in the five factor model contains six facets, each of which is measured with a separate scale. The use of facets and facet scales has since expanded beyond the NEO PI-R, with alternative facet and domain structures derived from other models of personality. Examples include the HEXACO model of personality structure, psycholexical studies, circumplex models, the Multidimensional Personality Questionnaire (MPQ), and the California Psychological Inventory.

Most scientists agree that religiosity is not an independent personality trait, despite there being some commonality between their characteristics. Religiosity and personality traits both relate to one's feelings, thoughts, and behaviors. However, unlike for personality, one's level of religiosity is often measured by the presence or lack of belief in and relationship with a higher power, certain lifestyles or behaviors adopted for a higher power, and a sense of belonging with other followers of one's religion. Additionally, personality traits tend to follow a normal distribution, such that the majority of individuals' scores for a personality trait will be concentrated towards the middle, rather than being extremely high or low. Distributions for religiosity, however, follow a non-normal distribution, such that there are more individuals who score particularly high or low on religiosity scales.

The alternative five model of personality is based on the claim that the structure of human personality traits is best explained by five broad factors called impulsive sensation seeking (ImpSS), neuroticism–anxiety (N-Anx), aggression–hostility (Agg-Host), sociability (Sy), and activity (Act). The model was developed by Marvin Zuckerman and colleagues as a rival to the well-known five factor model of personality traits and is based on the assumption that "basic" personality traits are those with a strong biological-evolutionary basis. One of the salient differences between these two models is that the alternative five model lacks any equivalent to the dimension called openness to experience in the five factor model.

The biological basis of personality is the collection of brain systems and mechanisms that underlie human personality. Human neurobiology, especially as it relates to complex traits and behaviors, is not well understood, but research into the neuroanatomical and functional underpinnings of personality are an active field of research. Animal models of behavior, molecular biology, and brain imaging techniques have provided some insight into human personality, especially trait theories.

Robert Roger McCrae is a personality psychologist. He earned his Ph.D. in 1976, and worked at the National Institute of Aging. He is associated with the Five Factor Theory of personality. He has spent his career studying the stability of personality across age and culture. Along with Paul Costa, he is a co-author of the Revised NEO Personality Inventory. He has served on the editorial boards of many scholarly journals, including the Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, the Journal of Research in Personality, the Journal of Cross-Cultural Psychology, and the Journal of Individual Differences.

Intelligence and personality have traditionally been studied as separate entities in psychology, but more recent work has increasingly challenged this view. An increasing number of studies have recently explored the relationship between intelligence and personality, in particular the Big Five personality traits.

A zero-acquaintance situation requires a perceiver to make a judgment about a target with whom the perceiver has had no prior social interaction. These judgments can be made using a variety of cues, including brief interactions with the target, video recordings of the target, photographs of the target, and observations of the target's personal environments, among others. In zero-acquaintance studies, the target's actual personality is determined through the target's self-rating and/or ratings from close acquaintance(s) of that target. Consensus in ratings is determined by how consistently perceivers rate the target's personality when compared to other raters. Accuracy in ratings is determined by how well perceivers' ratings of a target compare to that target's self-ratings on the same scale, or to that target's close acquaintances' ratings of the target. Zero-acquaintance judgments are regularly made in day-to-day life. Given that these judgments tend to remain stable, even as the length of interaction increases, they can influence important interpersonal outcomes.

The Mapa ng Loob [ˈmapa naŋ lɔʔˈɔb], or Masaklaw na Panukat ng Loob [ˈmasak'law na pa'nukat naŋ lɔʔˈɔb] is a 188-item Filipino self-report personality inventory. It has a five-factor structure made up of 20 scales, which results in 4 scales for each of the five factors or domains. It has two additional scales which belong to two domains, and one social desirability scale. As with similar instruments such as the NEO-PI and the HEXACO, an individual can be scored on each of the 5 larger domains, but also on each of the more specific trait scales. The Mapa was developed by academics and students working at the University of the Philippines Diliman, for use with young adult and adult Filipino respondents. It is currently available for purchase in pen-and-paper and online formats.

References

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