Black male studies

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Black male studies (BMS), [1] also known as Black men's studies, [2] [3] Black masculinist studies, [4] African-American male studies, [5] and African-American men's studies, [6] is an area of study within the interdisciplinary field of Black studies [7] [8] [9] that primarily focuses on the study of Black men and boys. [10] Its research focus includes the study of Black manhood and Black masculinity, and it draws from disciplines such as history, philosophy, and sociology. [10]

Contents

Overview

Black male studies primarily focuses on the study of Black men and boys. [10] Its research focus includes the study of Black manhood and Black masculinity, and it draws from disciplines such as history, philosophy, and sociology. [10] Black male studies uses a Black male-centered paradigm designed to critique past and present gender studies publications on Black males as well as centers and contends with the problem of anti-Black misandry (“disdain for Black men and boys”). [1]

Many BMS scholars characterize past and present gender studies publications with carrying assumptions of Black men and boys being criminals and assailants of Black women and white women. [1] Consequently, past and present gender studies publications are claimed to contain paradigms, theories, and narratives that are grounded in anti-Black misandry, along with a theoretically constructed language of hypermasculinity, and tend to be ill-equipped at understanding Black males as victims. [1] The past and present vulnerability of Black males, ranging from rape, to sexual abuse, to death, which tends to be overlooked and downplayed by rhetoric about hypermasculinity, underscores the need to develop new language, narratives, and theories for understanding Black males. [1]

Black male studies aims to advance the study of Black males of all ages, beyond the scope of Black male stereotypes, [11] and humanize the theoretical accounts of Black males. [12] Its prescribed research focus[ by whom? ] includes creativity, intellect, and the health of Black males of all ages as well the socialization of adult Black males as it relates to family, fatherhood, and positive relations with their children, and the social and psychological methods of coping used by Black males. [11] Black male studies also seeks to liberate Black males from the gender teleology that has been set upon them. [13] Additionally, Black male studies seeks to provide counternarratives to hegemonic narratives about Black males; these counternarratives include highlighting the victimization of Black males, which operates counter to hegemonic narratives that pathologically imagine and depict Black male as agents of their own racial discrimination and socioeconomic isolation. [14] Furthermore, Black male studies seeks to counter these narratives about Black males through empirical testing, theory development, [13] and the lived experiences and voices of Black males. [12] Black male studies seeks to have a re-evaluation of the body of work on the maleness, manhood, and masculinity of Black males and their role in relation to white patriarchy. [13]

History

Richard Majors, who is an Afro-psychologist, is attributed with creating African American Male Studies in 1991. [15]

In 1992, J. Billson and R. Majors developed the cool pose theory. [16] [ further explanation needed ]

In 1998, Harold Mason developed an empirical community college persistence model for African American males. [16] [ further explanation needed ]

In 2010, S. R. Harper developed the anti-deficit achievement paradigm. [16] [ further explanation needed ]

In 2013, E. C. Bush and L. Bush developed the African American male theory. [16] [ further explanation needed ]

Through the authoring of Tommy J. Curry's The Man-Not: Race, Class, Genre, and the Dilemmas of Black Manhood (2017), [17] the theoretical foundations for [18] and the necessity of Black male studies as a distinct area of study was shown, [19] the presence of Black male studies in philosophy was made known, [17] and the necessity for its multidisciplinary focus on topics such as class, law, masculinity, politics, and race were shown. [19] Curry's 2018 work Killing Boogeymen: Phallicism and The Misandric Mischaracterization of Black Males in Theory was also foundational for Black male studies. [12] Due to how significant these works have been to Black male studies, Lawrence A. Rasheed indicated that Curry could be considered the "father" of Black male studies. [12] However, Rasheed also indicated that numerous scholars from inside and outside of academia contributed to the foundations of Black male studies. [12]

In 2019, Tommy J. Curry became the editor for the book series Black Male Studies: A Series Exploring the Paradoxes of Racially Subjugated Males at the Temple University Press. [20] The book series was grounded in the post-intersectional paradigms of global South masculinities and social dominance theory, sought to address the existing shortcomings in masculinity studies publications, and aspired toward the development of empirically established theorization in Black male studies. [18] [21] [22]

Examination of the United States

The United States has been a primary focus of inquiry of Black male studies. BMS scholars claim that in the United States, Black males are excluded, otherized, ostracized, and discriminated against on the basis of race and sex. BMS scholars ground this treatment in a history of pathologized, prejudiced caricatures of Black people, and in particular, caricatures and views of Black males as being threats to the political and socioeconomic dominance and power of White males. [14]

During the 19th century, the heteropatriarchal norms of family structure and society limited political and socioeconomic dominance and power to the realms of white manhood; the caricature of Black males as maliciously violent and animalistic stems from this 19th-century environment. [14] Curry argues that White suffragettes, such as Susan B. Anthony and Elizabeth Cady Stanton, were influential in the expansion of the power of White supremacy through their advocating for the mass lynching of Black males [23] and through the demonization of Black males so as to affect their right to vote. [23] [24] In addition to promoting racial unity among Whites during the mid-19th century, Curry argues that White women sought to reinforce the system of segregation and disenfranchise Black men amid the first half of the 20th century. [25] This was established through various means, such as establishing Ku Klux Klan branches, joining citizens councils, and leading public campaigns. Through the political and scholarly efforts of White feminists amid the 1970s, Black militancy was portrayed as a danger to the womanhood of White women. [25] In spite of this documented history between Black males and White women, and criticism of the image of White women having occurred since the 1960s, Curry claims that the image of White women has remained one of being "politically liberal, socially progressive, and peaceful." [25]

BMS scholars examine disparities between punishments for violations of the patriarchal social order and racial caste system of the southern United States, claiming that the severity of these punishments were greater for Black males than Black females. [14] Amid slavery and Jim Crow segregation, Black males of all ages were enslaved, lynched, and raped by White men and women. [25] Jim Crow laws, segregation, and economic policies of the capitalist system are studied in how they oppressed and discriminated against Black males as well as deny Black males means of and opportunities for self-actualization of their manhood. BMS scholars also attribute this to anti-Black misandry. [14]

Through the lens of social dominance theory, Black males are understood to be out-group males who are subordinated by and through the hegemonic system of in-group White males; this dynamic is particularly exacerbated as it relates to material resources and symbolic group boundaries. [14] The constructed narrative around out-group Black males increasingly shifts toward one of Black males being sexual threats to the endogamous outcomes of White people as economic abundance increases. [14]

Relationship with feminism and intersectionality

In the 1960s [13] and 1970s, [13] [26] white feminists and racist specialists in criminology developed gender theories that are grounded in racist constructions of Black manhood as imitations of white manhood; these theories continue to be used by intersectionality. [26] Despite decades of use, evidence has not been produced to support these theories, which, thereby, shows the theories as being mainly grounded in ideology and ideological assumptions. [26] In particular, the theories are grounded in ideological assumptions, such as Black males having incomplete identities, who then have ideological narratives that create caricatures of Black males from these assumed incomplete identities. [26]

Black male studies establishes anti-Black misandry as enshrined in academia, particularly in academic literature and theories of feminism and intersectionality. [26] Anti-Black misandry has been defined as “the cumulative assertions of Black male inferiority due to errant psychologies of lack, dispositions of deviance, or hyper-personality traits (e.g., hyper-sexuality, hyper-masculinity) which rationalize the criminalization, phobics, and sanctioning of Black male life” [26] [27] and the “hatred, fear, and negation of Black males”.

The characterization of Black males as patriarchs who are committed to dominance is deemed by BMS scholars to be constructed by a psychologism for intersectionality that remains unchallenged; this characterization, [26] along with the assumption of male privilege being attributable to Black males, [28] in relation to evidence of Black males as being out-group males, has resulted in it being identified as “intersectionality’s Black male problem.” [26] Consequently, what has been sought in Black male studies is for the portrayal of White patriarchy providing benefits to the masculinity of Black males to be re-evaluated. [29] BMS scholars claim that intersectionality ideologically emphasizes imitation and criminality in Black manhood, and they contrast this by characterizing Black manhood as “positive, functional, and humanist.” [26]

Black male studies also seeks to liberate Black males from what is deemed a deterministic lens in current gender frameworks that views Black males as objects rather than subjects. [26] Further, Black male studies tackles subculture-of-violence reasoning about Black males, labeling it as outdated, pseudoscientific assumptions from racist criminology that are repackaged as being state-of-the-art feminist theory; [26] [13] Timothy Golden has labeled this as "theoretical dehumanization." [30]

Adebayo Oluwayomi cites bell hooks' 2004 book We Real Cool: Black Men and Masculinity as an example of academic literature that uses intersectionality to pathologically characterize Black males without use of empirical data. [28] Oluwayomi writes that Black feminist theories describe "Black males as what they are not—the man-not." [28]

Notable concepts

Theory of phallicism

Tommy J. Curry defines phallicism as "the condition by which males of a subordinated racialized or ethnicized group are simultaneously imagined to be a sexual threat and predatory, and libidinally constituted as sexually desirous by the fantasies or fetishes of the dominant racial group." [31] The concept of the subordinate male target, which is a concept in social dominance theory, serves as the basis for the concept of the racialized male, central to the theory of phallicism.[ how? ] [28] Curry's scholarship on sexually vulnerable, racialized males in Black male studies has also contributed to the scholarship in Holocaust studies. [32]

Black PlayCrit

Black PlayCrit was coined by Nathaniel Bryan as "the specificity of Blackness and anti-Black misandric violence in boyhood play experiences." [1] Black PlayCrit adds to the contributions of critical race theory, Black critical theory, and Black male studies by attempting to progress beyond the theoretically constructed language of hypermasculinity and be theoretically capable of taking into account the racialized and gendered mistreatment, as well as the victimization and vulnerability, of Black boys. [1] Due to the perception among BMS scholars that the racial theorization of critical race theory doesn't particularly address the problem of anti-Blackness, distinct from White supremacy,[ how? ] Black critical theory attempts to particularly address the problem of anti-Blackness through the construction and framing of ideas and language to describe it in the lives of Black people as well as the development of counternarratives. [1] According to Bryan, Black PlayCrit utilizes the following notions: "(a) The idea of Play-Not is endemic to Black boys’ play experiences; (b) the idea of the Play-Past/Play-Present and Future nexus makes explicit connections to past, present, and future acts of antimisandric violence in Black boys’ play; and (c) the idea of the public pedagogy of Black boyhood play serves as concept and pedagogy which challenge anti-Black misandry in Black boys’ play." [1]

BlackBoyCrit (Black boy critical theory) pedagogy adds to Black PlayCrit literacies by addressing the manifold problems (e.g., emotional, psychological, pedagogical) that affect Black boys during their early period of schooling. [33] BlackBoyCrit pedagogy also derives its direction and basis from Black critical theory (BlackCrit) and Black male studies. [33] BlackBoyCrit pedagogy has been constructed to emphasize the importance of Black male teachers and Black boys, both during the early period of schooling and outside of it. [33]

The research method of Black male studies is one of the research methods used in Black male literacy education. [34] A continuous pattern found throughout academic works from Black male studies is Black male accounts of experiencing racial battle fatigue, which is defined as "the physical and psychological toll taken due to constant and unceasing discrimination, micro-aggressions, and stereotype threat." [12] Consequently, many Black males "suffer from forms of generalized anxiety manifested by both physical and emotional symptom." [12] Black male literacy development also corresponds with this pattern of racial battle fatigue. [12]

Notable academics

Scholarly and academic journals

Related Research Articles

Misandry is the hatred of, contempt for, or prejudice against men or boys.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Masculinity</span> Attributes associated with boys and men

Masculinity is a set of attributes, behaviors, and roles associated with men and boys. Masculinity can be theoretically understood as socially constructed, and there is also evidence that some behaviors considered masculine are influenced by both cultural factors and biological factors. To what extent masculinity is biologically or socially influenced is subject to debate. It is distinct from the definition of the biological male sex, as anyone can exhibit masculine traits. Standards of masculinity vary across different cultures and historical periods.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Black studies</span> Academic field focusing on peoples of the African diaspora and Africa

Black studies, or Africana studies, is an interdisciplinary academic field that primarily focuses on the study of the history, culture, and politics of the peoples of the African diaspora and Africa. The field includes scholars of African-American, Afro-Canadian, Afro-Caribbean, Afro-Latino, Afro-European, Afro-Asian, African Australian, and African literature, history, politics, and religion as well as those from disciplines, such as sociology, anthropology, cultural studies, psychology, education, and many other disciplines within the humanities and social sciences. The field also uses various types of research methods.

Male privilege is the system of advantages or rights that are available to men on the basis of their sex. A man's access to these benefits may vary depending on how closely they match their society's ideal masculine norm.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Intersectionality</span> Theory of discrimination

Intersectionality is an analytical framework for understanding how individuals' various social and political identities result in unique combinations of discrimination and privilege. Intersectionality identifies multiple factors of advantage and disadvantage. Examples of these factors include gender, caste, sex, race, ethnicity, class, sexuality, religion, disability, weight, and physical appearance. These intersecting and overlapping social identities may be both empowering and oppressing. However, little good-quality quantitative research has been done to support or undermine the theory of intersectionality.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Critical race theory</span> Intellectual movement and framework

Critical race theory (CRT) is an interdisciplinary academic field devoted to analysing how laws, social and political movements, and media shape, and are shaped by, social conceptions of race and ethnicity. CRT also considers racism to be systemic in various laws and rules, and not only based on individuals' prejudices. The word critical in the name is an academic reference to critical thinking, critical theory, and scholarly criticism, rather than criticizing or blaming individuals.

Men's studies is an interdisciplinary academic field devoted to topics concerning men, masculinity, gender, culture, politics and sexuality. It academically examines what it means to be a man in contemporary society.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Michael Kimmel</span> American sociologist (born 1951)

Michael Scott Kimmel is an American retired sociologist specializing in gender studies. He was Distinguished Professor of Sociology at Stony Brook University in New York and is the founder and editor of the academic journal Men and Masculinities. Kimmel is a spokesman of the National Organization for Men Against Sexism (NOMAS) and a longtime feminist. In 2013, he founded the Center for the Study of Men and Masculinities at Stony Brook University, where he is Executive Director. In 2018 he was publicly accused of sexual harassment. He filed for retirement while Title IX charges were pending; no charges were subsequently filed.

The men's movement is a social movement that emerged in the 1960s and 1970s, primarily in Western countries, which consists of groups and organizations of men and their allies who focus on gender issues and whose activities range from self-help and support to lobbying and activism.

The men's liberation movement is a social movement critical of the restraints which society imposes on men. Men's liberation activists are generally sympathetic to feminist standpoints.

Hypermasculinity is a psychological and sociological term for the exaggeration of male stereotypical behavior, such as an emphasis on physical strength, aggression, and human male sexuality. Within psychology, this term has been used ever since the publication of research by Donald L. Mosher and Mark Sirkin in 1984. Mosher and Sirkin operationally define hypermasculinity or the "macho personality" as consisting of three variables:

In gender studies, hegemonic masculinity is part of R. W. Connell's gender order theory, which recognizes multiple masculinities that vary across time, society, culture, and the individual. Hegemonic masculinity is defined as a practice that legitimizes men's dominant position in society and justifies the subordination of the common male population and women, and other marginalized ways of being a man. Conceptually, hegemonic masculinity proposes to explain how and why men maintain dominant social roles over women, and other gender identities, which are perceived as "feminine" in a given society.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Kimberlé Crenshaw</span> American academic and lawyer (born 1959)

Kimberlé Williams Crenshaw is an American civil rights advocate and a leading scholar of using critical race theory as a lens to further explore and examine the Tulsa massacre. She is a professor at the UCLA School of Law and Columbia Law School, where she specializes in race and gender issues.

<i>We Real Cool: Black Men and Masculinity</i> 2004 book by bell hooks

We Real Cool: Black Men and Masculinity is a 2004 book about masculinity by feminist author bell hooks. It collects ten essays on black men. The title alludes to Gwendolyn Brooks' 1959 poem "We Real Cool". The essays are intended to provide cultural criticism and solutions to the problems she identifies.

Gender policing is the imposition or enforcement of normative gender expressions on an individual who is perceived as not adequately performing, through appearance or behavior, their gender or sex that was assigned to them at birth. According to Judith Butler, rejection of individuals who are non-normatively gendered is a component of creating one's own gender identity. Gender mainstreaming is a public policy concept, whereas gender policing is a more general social phenomenon.

The concept of toxic masculinity is used in academic and media discussions to refer to those aspects of hegemonic masculinity that are socially destructive, such as misogyny, homophobia and violent domination. These traits are considered "toxic" due in part to their promotion of violence, including sexual assault and domestic violence. Socialization of boys sometimes also normalizes violence, such as in the saying "boys will be boys" about bullying and aggression.

Tommy J. "T. J." Curry is an African American scholar, author and professor of philosophy. As of 2019, he holds a Personal Chair in Africana philosophy and Black male studies at the University of Edinburgh. In 2018, he won an American Book Award for The Man-Not: Race, Class, Genre, and the Dilemmas of Black Manhood.

Racial battle fatigue is a term coined in 2003 to describe the psychosocial stress responses from being a racially oppressed group member in society and on a historically White campus. The term was introduced by William A. Smith, a professor in the Division of Ethnic Studies and Department of Education, Culture, and Society at the University of Utah. The framework intends to offer a lens to better understand racial undertones of a campus environment and educational experiences for people of color. Smith's research was originally conducted on Black faculty, both men and women, and then on Black college students, prior to a more focused examination on African American men. Since this earlier period of research, racial battle fatigue scholarship has been used to include other racially marginalized groups. The phenomenon builds on existing research connecting African Americans and other people of color with oppression and discrimination experienced at historically White institutions. Smith incorporates literature on combat trauma and combat stress syndrome to help understand the effects of managing hostile environments and the ensuing persistent stress.

Abolitionist teaching, also known as abolitionist pedagogy, is a set of practices and approaches to teaching that focus on restoring humanity and pursuing educational freedom for all children in schools. It is rooted in Black critical theory. The term was coined by author and professor Bettina Love.

Discrimination against transgender men and transmasculine individuals, sometimes referred to as transandrophobia, anti-transmasculinity, or transmisandry, is a similar concept to transmisogyny and discrimination against non-binary people. Transmisogyny, discrimination against transgender men and discrimination against nonbinary people are types of transphobia which affect trans women, trans men and nonbinary people respectively.

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  49. ↑ "Dalitso Ruwe". Queen’s University.
  50. ↑ "John Singer". Texas A&M University.
  51. ↑ "Dr. Damariyé L. Smith". San Diego State University.
  52. ↑ "Rose Black Resource Center". California State University, Dominguez Hills.
  53. ↑ "Uwazi Zamani". University of the Arts.
  54. ↑ "[NCAAM] Journal of African American Male Studies [JAAMS] - Calls for Papers and Papers, 1991 - 1992, undated". University of Kansas.
  55. ↑ "Journal of African American Males in Education (JAAME)". Scholastica.
  56. ↑ "Journal of African American men : a publication of the National Council of African American Men". Indiana University.
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