Carfree city

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A square in Venice, an example of a carfree city Venice - Campo S. Margherita.jpg
A square in Venice, an example of a carfree city

A carfree city is an urban area absent of motor vehicles. [1] [2] [3] Carfree cities rely on public transport, walking, and cycling for travel as opposed to motor vehicles. Districts where motor vehicles are prohibited are referred to as carfree zones. Carfree city models have gained traction in the second half of the 20th century due to issues with congestion and infrastructure, and proposed environmental and quality of life benefits. Many cities in Asia, Europe, and Africa have carfree areas due to the cities being created before the invention of motor vehicles, [1] while many developing cities in Asia are using the carfree model to modernize their infrastructure. [1]

Contents

Characteristics

A city can be fully or partly carfree. Cities that are fully carfree prohibit all use of private cars in the city limits, while cities that are partly carfree have carfree zones but allow some private car use in other areas. These zones tend to be focused around the city center. [4] Carfree city projects are designed around the needs of people rather than cars, with careful zoning that increases pedestrian mobility and efficient structural placement. [5]

While there is no specific blueprint for designing a carfree city, many cities around the world have found success with variants of the following model.

An idyllic carfree city consists of two zones: a residential core and service based periphery. [6] The core consists of residences and living quarters within a public space in the center. [6] In order to reduce motor traffic in this area, walking serves as the primary mode of transportation with cycling routes open as an addition. [6] As a result, there is less conflict between motorized traffic and residences. [6] A pedestrian and bicycle network also gradually emerges, joining several parts of the city. [6]

The periphery, which encapsulates the residential core, is composed of services and facilities such as supermarkets and gyms. The distances between these facilities and the core are determined by the frequency of usage, with the more frequently used lying closest to the city center. [6] These facilities will be decentralized around the city, with the goal to reduce walking distances, improve residential access, and minimize the need for new road infrastructure. [5] An alternative to a decentralized configuration is a central public transport stop surrounded by dense shops and services that provide for easy public access without walking. [7]

Outside the carfree city lie transportation zones and car parks to be used by the city residences. Car parks outside the city square provide access to the periphery of the city, but bar access to the core. Often, parkings are created at the outskirts of the city to allow people to park their car there, and/or take an alternative means of transport into town ("park and ride"). These networks allow for logistical components such as centralized import/export and waste collection. [6]

Motivations

Motivations for the transition to (or creation of) a carfree city include a reduction in air pollution and noise pollution, as well as the ability to reallocate land previously used for vehicle infrastructure such as parking lots and wide roads. [4] Particularly in developing countries, the current infrastructures are not able to keep up with the increase of private vehicles, even after optimization and new construction of roadways.

Regarding the environmental impacts, reducing the number of cars concentrated in an urban area can improve air quality and reduce noise. It is believed that vehicular pollution causes approximately 184,000 deaths around the world, and keeping cars out of heavily populated areas could reduce the impact of this pollution. [8] Additionally, future plans of implementing superblocks in Barcelona could reduce the amount of the residential population exposed to noise pollution greater than 65 dB from 42.5% to 26.5%. [9]

Regarding the ability to reallocate land, around 70% of downtown land in several U.S. cities is allocated for use by cars. [4] The removal of parking lots and other car-heavy areas not only alleviates the air and noise pollution but provides the opportunity for land to be used for other purposes. If land is reallocated properly, it could also reduce the urban heat island effect, which occurs when concrete and asphalt replace greenery in an area, resulting in increased temperatures due to albedo and other effects. [4] In developing countries such as Vietnam, efforts to curb traffic through optimization of roadways, building of new infrastructure, and change in policies have not been able to alleviate motorized flow. [6] There is traction to introduce a new carfree city model that would allow for improving the quality of life while meeting the logistical needs of all residents.

Process

Current efforts to transform congested cities into carfree cities requires a few logistical and societal measures such as consultation meetings with all stakeholders, such as town halls, using computer modelling and measuring traffic before and after road closures, and enforcing restrictions once the plan is in place. [10] Many cities undergoing transformation in the EU have outlined their guidelines from pre-implementation consultation, to design, to post implementation.

After the closing down of streets and squares to personal car traffic, a pedestrian and bicycle network gradually emerges and joins several parts of the city. Similarly, prompted by the same need to avoid conflicts with car traffic and enhance pedestrian movement, pedestrian networks have emerged below street level (underground city) or above road-level to connect large downtown areas as in the Minneapolis Skyway System. [11] For new areas on the fringe of cities or new towns, two new complementary ideas have emerged. The concept of Filtered Permeability (2007) and a model for planning towns and subdivisions - the Fused Grid (2003). [12] [13] Both focus on shifting the balance of network design in favor of pedestrian and bicycle mobility.

Impacts

Direct impacts of carfree urban designs include enhanced air quality due to elimination of the pollutants that result from combustive processes used in many motor vehicles, reduced noise pollution and ground vibrations associated with engine and vehicle use, and reduced urban heat island effect. [14] Another impact would be the reduction of automobile-involved pedestrian and cyclist collisions and fatalities. Indirectly, through efficient, sustainable use of resources and faster transport of goods and people, carfree cities aim to improve quality of life for residents.

Environmental

Environmental impacts include a reduction in emissions of greenhouse gases as well as improvements in noise levels. After limiting the access of cars to the city center in Madrid, nitrogen oxide levels fell by 38% and carbon dioxide fell by 14.2% in the city center. [15] These emissions also fell across the whole city of Madrid by 9% for nitrogen oxide and 2% for carbon dioxide. [15] Additionally, levels of ambient noise that are associated with vehicular traffic can be reduced by implementing carfree zones, as seen by the reduction in noise pollution of 10 dB that occurs in Brussels on carfree Sundays. [4]

Economic

Residents of carfree areas are able to benefit from an increase in green space and an improved economy. In Madrid, limiting the access of cars to the city center resulted in increasing consumer spending by 9.5% on the main shopping street and by 3.3% across all of Madrid. [15] Additionally, residents of carfree zones in the Netherlands have benefited from increased real estate values, however, the neighboring non-carfree zones have had to deal with the spillover due to cars being unable to park in the carfree areas. [16] This brings into prominence the necessity of adequate parking near these zones and the question of whether these zones are inequitable. [16] Also, carfree designs limit transport options. Cities vary in their degree of automobile dependency, and urban structure tends to follow a concentric zone model. Thus, people living in suburbs and exurbs might gain little benefit and lose convenient access to the inner city, in redevelopment schemes for central and wealthy residential areas.

Individual

The individual impacts relate to the revitalisation of the space encouraging people to be more physically active, whether that be for commuting, for exercise or for leisure. By decreasing urban sprawl, mental health implications are perceived to improve due to less social and aesthetic issues caused by the segregation and isolation in car dependent societies. [1]

Examples

Venice

The city of Venice serves as an example of how a modern city can function without cars. [17] This design was unintentional as the city was founded over 1,500 years ago, long before the invention of the automobile. Visitors who drive to the city or residents who own a car must park their car in a carpark outside of the city and then proceed either by foot or train into the city. [17] The predominant method of transportation in the city is by foot, however motorized waterbuses (vaporetti) which travel the city's canals are also available. [17]

Barcelona

As part of the city council's 2014 Urban Mobility Plan, Barcelona, Spain, has implemented nine city block wide pedestrian-only spaces, known as "superblocks". [9] The perimeters of these blocks remain open to all cars and city buses, while the interior only allows local traffic that must travel under 10 km/h. [18] The city's government cites several aims for this plan, including more sustainable mobility and a revitalization of public spaces. [19] The COVID-19 pandemic gave birth to proposals for radical change in the organization of Barcelona, such as the Manifesto for the Reorganisation of the City after COVID-19, published in Barcelona and signed by 160 academics and 300 architects, [20] [21] [22] with the elimination of the car as a key element.

Nuremberg

Since the 1970s, Nuremberg, Germany, has closed major vehicular traffic corridors in phases, amounting to a largely carfree city center. [10] In 1988, the city closed the last vehicular through-way through the center of the city on a trial basis. With a year, this transformation reduced overall vehicular traffic flow by 25% and increased air quality significantly. [10] The removal of cars from the city center was accompanied with the renovation of buildings and installation of new art pieces, producing an appealing pedestrian precinct. [10]

Heidelberg

As of 2021, the city of Heidelberg, Germany, according to the New York Times, "is buying a fleet of hydrogen-powered buses, building a network of bicycle 'superhighways' to the suburbs and designing neighborhoods to discourage all vehicles and encourage walking." An incentive of one year of free public transportation is given to any car owner who gives up their car. [23]

Ghent

In Ghent, Belgium, a circulation plan has been initiated and now the entire city heart (35 hectares) is partially carfree. [24] [10] [25] Sections exist where cars can drive as well as sections that are car-free. In some sections, public transport, taxis and permit holders may enter but they may not exceed 20 km/h. [10] A parking route exists around the city center, employing a parking guidance system to ensure access to all parts of the city and underground parking garages. [10] The transition to carfree has significantly reduced traffic congestion and increased the use of other modes of transport, such as bikes and public transportation. [10]

Islands

Other examples of carfree places are Mackinac Island and Paquetá Island, where cars are banned and the main transportation is by means of horses, bicycles, and boats. [26] [27]

Bad Aspirations

Masdar City

Masdar City, United Arab Emirates, is a futuristic city designed with eco-friendly principles in mind. [28] Masdar City adopted a carfree philosophy as part of its fundamental basis of being an eco-city. [28] Personal cars are eliminated from the street spaces, in favour of a walkable city design, and use of its autonomous personal rapid transit network for public transportation over greater distances. [29]

Great City

The Great City, in China, is another example of a newly-developed city, designed with the fundamentals of a carfree city in mind. [30]

The Line

The Line is a linear smart city under construction in Saudi Arabia in Neom, Tabuk Province, which is designed to have no cars, streets or carbon emissions.

See also

Related Research Articles

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Traffic calming</span> Road design measures that raise the safety of pedestrians and motorists

Traffic calming uses physical design and other measures to improve safety for motorists, car drivers, pedestrians and cyclists. It has become a tool to combat speeding and other unsafe behaviours of drivers in the neighbourhoods. It aims to encourage safer, more responsible driving and potentially reduce traffic flow. Urban planners and traffic engineers have many strategies for traffic calming, including narrowed roads and speed humps. Such measures are common in Australia and Europe, but less so in North America. Traffic calming is a calque of the German word Verkehrsberuhigung – the term's first published use in English was in 1985 by Carmen Hass-Klau.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Congestion pricing</span> System of surcharging users of public goods that are subject to congestion

Congestion pricing or congestion charges is a system of surcharging users of public goods that are subject to congestion through excess demand, such as through higher peak charges for use of bus services, electricity, metros, railways, telephones, and road pricing to reduce traffic congestion; airlines and shipping companies may be charged higher fees for slots at airports and through canals at busy times. Advocates claim this pricing strategy regulates demand, making it possible to manage congestion without increasing supply.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Effects of the car on societies</span> Overview of the effects of cars on various societies

Since the start of the twentieth century, the role of cars has become highly important, though controversial. They are used throughout the world and have become the most popular mode of transport in many of the more developed countries. In developing countries, the effects of the car on society are not as visible, however they are nonetheless significant. The development of the car built upon the transport sector first started by railways. This has introduced sweeping changes in employment patterns, social interactions, infrastructure and the distribution of goods.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Car-free days</span> Day promoting car-free travel

On car-free days, people are encouraged to travel by means other than cars. Some cities, like Jakarta and Tehran, have weekly car-free days. Other such days are annual. World Car Free Day is celebrated on September 22. Organized events are held in some cities and countries.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Pedestrian zone</span> Urban car-free area reserved for pedestrian use

Pedestrian zones are areas of a city or town restricted to use by people on foot or human-powered transport such as bicycles, with non-emergency motor traffic not allowed. Converting a street or an area to pedestrian-only use is called pedestrianisation.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Car-free movement</span> Movement to reduce the use of private vehicles

The car-free movement is a broad, informal, emergent network of individuals and organizations, including social activists, urban planners, transportation engineers, environmentalists and others, brought together by a shared belief that large and/or high-speed motorized vehicles are too dominant in most modern cities. The goal of the movement is to create places where motorized vehicle use is greatly reduced or eliminated, by converting road and parking space to other public uses and rebuilding compact urban environments where most destinations are within easy reach by other means, including walking, cycling, public transport, personal transporters, and mobility as a service.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">City block</span> Smallest area that is surrounded by streets

A city block, residential block, urban block, or simply block is a central element of urban planning and urban design.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Sustainable transport</span> Sustainable transport in the senses of social, environmental and climate impacts

Sustainable transport refers to ways of transportation that are sustainable in terms of their social and environmental impacts. Components for evaluating sustainability include the particular vehicles used for road, water or air transport; the source of energy; and the infrastructure used to accommodate the transport. Transport operations and logistics as well as transit-oriented development are also involved in evaluation. Transportation sustainability is largely being measured by transportation system effectiveness and efficiency as well as the environmental and climate impacts of the system. Transport systems have significant impacts on the environment, accounting for between 20% and 25% of world energy consumption and carbon dioxide emissions. The majority of the emissions, almost 97%, came from direct burning of fossil fuels. In 2019, about 95% of the fuel came from fossil sources. The main source of greenhouse gas emissions in the European Union is transportation. In 2019 it contributes to about 31% of global emissions and 24% of emissions in the EU. In addition, up to the COVID-19 pandemic, emissions have only increased in this one sector. Greenhouse gas emissions from transport are increasing at a faster rate than any other energy using sector. Road transport is also a major contributor to local air pollution and smog.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Living street</span> Traffic calming in spaces shared between road users

A living street is a street designed with the interests of pedestrians and cyclists in mind by providing enriching and experiential spaces. Living streets also act as social spaces, allowing children to play and encouraging social interactions on a human scale, safely and legally. Living streets consider all pedestrians granting equal access to elders and those who are disabled. These roads are still available for use by motor vehicles; however, their design aims to reduce both the speed and dominance of motorized transport. The reduction of motor vehicle dominance creates more opportunities for public transportation.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Transportation demand management</span> Policies to reduce transportation demands

Transportation demand management or travel demand management (TDM) is the application of strategies and policies to increase the efficiency of transportation systems, that reduce travel demand, or to redistribute this demand in space or in time.

A low-emission zone (LEZ) is a defined area where access by some polluting vehicles is restricted or deterred with the aim of improving air quality. This may favour vehicles such as bicycles, micromobility vehicles, (certain) alternative fuel vehicles, hybrid electric vehicles, plug-in hybrids, and zero-emission vehicles such as all-electric vehicles.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Car dependency</span> Concept that city layouts favor automobiles over other modes of transportation

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<span class="mw-page-title-main">Active mobility</span> Unmotorised transport powered by activity

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A circulation plan is a schematic empirical projection/model of how people and/or vehicles flow through a given area.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Milan Area C</span> Congestion charge in the city center of Milan, Italy

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<span class="mw-page-title-main">Sustainable Transport Award</span>

The Sustainable Transport Award (STA), is presented annually to a city that has shown leadership and vision in the field of sustainable transportation and urban livability in the preceding year. Nominations are accepted from anyone, and winners and honorable mentions are chosen by the Sustainable Transport Award Steering Committee.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Effects of cars</span> Impacts of car use

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<span class="mw-page-title-main">Green transport hierarchy</span> Prioritising vulnerable sustainable road users

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<span class="mw-page-title-main">Mobility transition</span>

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References

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