Christmas Island flying fox

Last updated

Christmas Island flying fox
Pteropus melanotus natalis - the Christmas Island flying-fox.jpg
Scientific classification OOjs UI icon edit-ltr.svg
Domain: Eukaryota
Kingdom: Animalia
Phylum: Chordata
Class: Mammalia
Order: Chiroptera
Family: Pteropodidae
Genus: Pteropus
Species:
P. melanotus
Subspecies:
P. m. natalis
Trinomial name
Pteropus melanotus natalis
Thomas, 1887 [2]
Christmas Island in its region.svg
Location of Christmas Island
Synonyms [3]
  • Pteropus natalis

The Christmas Island flying fox or Christmas Island fruit bat, as the name suggests, is a flying fox endemic to Christmas Island. It is unclear if it should be considered a distinct species (Pteropus natalis), or a subspecies of the black-eared flying fox (P. melanotus natalis). It may descend from a population of island flying foxes from Pulau Panjang near Java.

Contents

The Christmas Island flying fox is medium-sized, averaging 400 g (14 oz). [4] It has mainly black fur, but slight variations exist. It gives birth to one pup (generally during the wet season from December to March), which can fly by five or six months, and reaches sexual maturity by 27 or 28 months, which is one of the slowest maturation times of any bat. [4] Life expectancy is thought to be 6 to 12 years. It forages across the island for fruit and nectar, and, being one of two animals on the island to do so, is likely a keystone species, important in seed dispersal and pollination. Unlike most other bats, it often starts foraging a few hours before sunset (partial diurnal ity).

Due to human activity, it is the sole remaining native mammal species on the island. The population has gone into sharp decline, reduced by 66–75% between 1984 and 2006, and by 35–39% from 2006 to 2012. Causes of the decline likely include development of the island, invasive species, and phosphate mining and resultant cadmium poisoning. [5] The species is considered critically endangered, [6] and if the population trend is maintained, Christmas Island flying foxes are likely to become extinct in the near future. [7]

Taxonomy

The relations of the Christmas Island flying fox with some other flying foxes

The Christmas Island flying fox was first described as Pteropus natalis in 1887 by British zoologist Oldfield Thomas, who sailed to Christmas Island on HMS Flying Fish, on the basis of two females and a newborn male. [2]

In 1940, British zoologist Frederick Nutter Chasen demoted all Pteropus in the region to subspecies of the black-eared flying fox, though he expressed some doubts on the validity of P. melanotus natalis. [8] This sentiment was shared with subsequent authors, and the Australian government,. [6] [9] [10] The Christmas Island flying fox seems to maintain a fair degree of genetic diversity, [11] and its restriction to an island could suggest sufficient genetic isolation to warrant separation. [9] However, the authoritative Mammal Species of the World follows the subspecies classification. [3]

Genetic mapping suggests the Christmas Island flying fox is closely related to other Oceanian flying foxes, and is part of the griseus species complex, [11] along with the island, grey, Philippine grey, great, spectacled, black, insular, Kosrae, Admiralty, Geelvink Bay, Marianas, Pelew, Ontong Java, and Nicobar flying foxes. [12]

The Christmas Island flying fox may descend from a population of island flying foxes from Pulau Panjang off the northeast coast of Java. [11]

Description

The Christmas Island flying fox is medium-sized, averaging about 129.5 mm (5.10 in) in forearm length, [4] and 400 g (14 oz), up to a maximum in males of 553 g (19.5 oz), [4] which would be achieved at an age of 38.5 months. On average, males are 3.6% heavier than females. Males reach peak body mass in May, possibly coinciding with the mating season. [4] It has a broad snout, short and pointed ears, and short teeth (especially the canines). [2]

It is generally covered in deep shining black fur, but the body has a slightly browner tinge than the head. The fur is thick and soft, especially on the head and neck, and grows sparser on the limbs. [2] Some individuals have an indistinct reddish collar, giving the body a rounded appearance. [13] [14] In some (probably old) males, there is a brown band around the neck, most conspicuous on the sides, narrowing towards the nape without joining. [15]

British paleontologists Charles William Andrews noted that it emits a loud, harsh screech. [15]

Life history

Illustration by British palaeontologist Charles William Andrews (1900) ChristmasIslandFlyingFox-Andrews1900.png
Illustration by British palaeontologist Charles William Andrews (1900)

Reproduction

Like other flying foxes, it is a K-selected species with a long lifespan and slow reproduction rate. Though pups can be born throughout the year, birth rates are highest from December to February (during the wet season), but especially in February. Generally only one pup is born, and given infant mortality, an individual, on average, has to breed for several years to avert sub-replacement fertility. Like most other flying foxes, gestation time is about five months, and the pup is weaned after four months. [4] There are multiple roost sites on the island where females and their pups congregate for a portion of the year. [16]

Since males seem to be defending mating territories with multiple females, and males are bigger than females, it is assumed to be polygynous, and males and females can mate multiple times. [1] [4] [16] It is possible that males fight over females, and larger claws in males may be used in defending territories and harems. However, sexually mature males are unlikely to maintain harems until they reach full size at about 38.5 months. [4] The average life expectancy is estimated to be 6 to 12 years, and, based on this, generation time is 5 to 9 years, though it could be as short as two years. [17] [4]

Development

Illustration by bird illustrator John Gerrard Keulemans (1887) Pteropus natalis.jpg
Illustration by bird illustrator John Gerrard Keulemans (1887)

A newborn has a forearm length about 49 mm (1.9 in) and weighs 55 g (1.9 oz). Its forearm length increases an estimated 0.029±0.005 mm each day, while its weight increases 0.33±0.7 g per day. This is appreciably slower than other flying foxes. The thumb does not increase much in size, only 1.2% bigger in adults than juveniles, suggesting the thumb is important in social interactions or moving in trees prior to flight-readiness. It becomes flight-ready after five or six months when it reaches an estimated forearm length of 112 mm (4.4 in) and weight of 163 g (5.7 oz), respectively 86.3% and 41.2% of their adult dimensions. [4]

Males begin to mature at 15 months of age and are sexually mature by 27 months; females reach physical maturity at 24 months, and sexual maturity by 28 months. This is one of the oldest ages of maturation of any known bat. [4] For example, the grey-headed flying fox reaches sexual maturity at 16 and 11 months for males and females respectively. This may be due to a lack of predators on the island and an overall low natural mortality rate, which would make it more beneficial to delay development in order to prolong lifespan. Development is mainly skeletal prior to maturation, and then focuses more on weight gain. [4]

Population

Map of Christmas Island Map of Christmas Island 1976.jpg
Map of Christmas Island

The Christmas Island flying fox is endemic to the 135 km2 (52 sq mi) Christmas Island, [14] [5] and was described by the first settlers in the 1890s as very common. British palaeontologist Charles William Andrews, on his 1897 visit to the island, reported hundreds of flying foxes covering a dead tree. [15] In 1947, British naturalist Carl Alexander Gibson-Hill also reported the flying fox as plentiful, and described them as somewhat of a nuisance for destroying fruit crops, especially papaya. [18]

A 1984 survey reported a population of about 6,000 individuals, and 3,500 of these roosted in six colonies along the coastline: Middle Point (assumed breeding colony), Daniel Roux Cave (assumed bachelor colony), Ethel Beach (assumed juvenile colony), Hosnies Spring (assumed breeding colony with a population of ~2,000), Greta Beach (assumed breeding and juvenile colony), and McMicken Point. Colonies may hug the coastline due to the greater amount of food resources there. It seasonally aggregates to certain roosts, possibly related to mating behavior, and most roosts may be seasonally occupied. [9] [18]

The remaining 2,500 individuals were scattered across the island, roosting either solitarily or in small groups of three or four individuals, and moved freely about the island rather than remaining sedentary. The Christmas Island flying fox has been observed roosting in 13 different tree species: the powder-puff tree, the black mangrove, the stinkwood Celtis timorensis , the Malayan banyan, the sea randa, the helicopter tree, the sea hibiscus, the guest tree, the dogbane Ochrosia ackeringae , the parasol leaf tree, the grand devil's-claws, Syzygium nervosum , and the beach almond. Roosts tend to be in the wind-exposed canopy to aid in take-off. [19]

The population drastically declined by 2006; the reported population of 1,500–2,000 represented a 66–75% decline. [16] The former three of the six colonies (Middle Point, Daniel Roux Cave and Ethel beach) seem to have been abandoned, and the remaining housed no more than 500–1,400 individuals. [18] Anecdotal evidence suggests decline during the mid-1990s, possibly starting in 1988. [18] Population continued to decline by 35–39% between 2006 and 2012, indicating the cause of decline has not been adequately dealt with yet. [16] Colonies of flying-foxes have since been found to be roosting colonially in different places and near the abandoned colonies.

Ecology

Illustration of the Christmas imperial pigeon by Dutch ornithologist Johannes Gerardus Keulemans (1887) CarpophagaWhartoniKeulemans.jpg
Illustration of the Christmas imperial pigeon by Dutch ornithologist Johannes Gerardus Keulemans (1887)

Unlike most other bats, the Christmas Island flying fox starts foraging a few hours before sunset (partial diurnal ity), and has been observed to leave roosts as early as 1:00 p.m. local time, though uncommonly before 4:00 p.m., and peak time between 5:45 and 6:15 p.m. [18] It has been hypothesised that this behaviour could be facilitated by the lack of natural predators.

The Christmas Island goshawk Photo of Christmas Island Goshawk 2006.jpg
The Christmas Island goshawk

Individuals forage across the island. It primarily feeds on fruit (frugivory) and nectar (nectarivory), sourced from 35 native plants and 18 introduced, which increase productivity in the wet season from December to March. Inferred from their commonness on the island, the most important trees to their diet are the powder-puff tree, C. timorensis, ivory mahogany, common fig, Polynesian chestnut, the parasol leaf tree, cockspur thorn, Planchonella duclitan , S. nervosum, beach almond, and Tristiropsis acutangula . The introduced Muntingia calabura is also noted as a major component of its diet. [18] [16]

The Christmas Island flying fox and the Christmas imperial pigeon are the only major frugivores on the island. Island-dwelling flying foxes, in general, may be the only animals on their island responsible for pollination and seed dispersal for local plants, acting as keystone species. [16] [5]

The Christmas Island goshawk has been seen attacking and eating the Christmas Island flying fox. The Nankeen kestrel, which established itself on the island around 1950, and the island's frigatebirds have been observed harassing it. [18] Flying foxes are generally infested with spinturnicid mites, and the mite Meristaspis calcaratus was recorded on the Christmas Island flying fox, though in low density. There is a report of a nonpathogenic coccidia protozoan infection, which is only recorded in 15 other bat species, and an unidentified ascaridid roundworm, possibly the deadly Toxocara pteropidis . [20]

Interactions with humans

Since the initial settlement of Christmas Island in the 1890s, the fragile island ecology has been disrupted, with the extinction of every other native mammal: the Christmas Island pipistrelle, Maclear's rat, bulldog rat, and Christmas Island shrew. [11] The Christmas Island flying fox was historically hunted, made easier by island tameness, but hunting was largely minimal and products (such as bushmeat and oil) only sold locally, and the practice has since become illegal. [16] [21] [22] Jackfruit was wired to trees close to the ground and used as bait. [18]

Threats

Phosphate quarry on Christmas Island Phosphate Rock (25509053072).jpg
Phosphate quarry on Christmas Island

Though 63% of the island is a nature reserve, development could still harm flying fox populations. For example, the construction of a casino and possible losses to specific food resources is implicated in the abandonment of the Ethel Beach colony. [18]

Several invasive species have been introduced to Christmas Island, including the barking gecko, Oriental wolf snake, African giant snail, black rat, feral cat, yellow crazy ants, Tanzanian blue ringleg centipede. The last three are especially implicated in harming flying foxes. However, though feral cats are known to consume the flying fox, there is no evidence they are actively hunting native wildlife; [23] the yellow crazy ant, which sprays noxious formic acid, has formed destructive supercolonies, but while behaviour such as scratching increase in response to the presence of the ant, the flying-foxes do not relocate to different trees or different sites, indicating either minimal disturbance or maladaptive tolerance due to island tameness. [24] Nonetheless, these invasive species have the potential to negatively impact the ecosystem via habitat alteration, outcompetition, over-predation, or acting as disease vectors. [20] Ant supercolonies have been aerially bombed with the toxic insecticide Fipronil [16] [21] [22] (but it has unknown effects on the flying fox) [18]

Strong gale-force winds sweeping the island on 27 March 1988 coincided with the estimated start of population decline around 1988, and it was proposed that this destroyed colonies overnight and swept some bats off to sea. [18] [16] [11] [22]

Phosphate mining sends dust into the vicinity, which may contain traces of cadmium and suppress plant growth. Ingestion of sufficient quantity, possibly through licking off the dust while grooming or consuming dust-covered food, can lead to cadmium poisoning and liver problems. One roost near a phosphate drier was abandoned, and one Christmas Island flying fox liver was found to contain 0.69 mg/kg cadmium, which is higher than the 0.06–0.48 mg observed in various lab and wild animals, but lower than the toxic threshold, though even trace amounts can be harmful. [16] The Daniel Roux Cave colony was likely abandoned due to phosphate mining activity. [18]

Conservation

The Christmas Island flying fox population is listed as Vulnerable [25] by the International Union for Conservation of Nature, but would be considered Critically Endangered if it is found to be a unique species (IUCN) Red List of Threatened Species as of 2008. [1] It is considered critically endangered and protected by Australia's Environment Protection and Biodiversity Conservation Act 1999. [6] [16] and hunting was made illegal by the Christmas Island Act of 1958. [18]

Whatever the case, if this rate continues, the flying fox has a 41 percent probability to go extinct in the near future by 2038. [7] As of 2015, the management plan for the flying fox is a A$500,000 (~US$342,000) project eradicating cats, rats, and ants on the island. [6]

Related Research Articles

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Megabat</span> Family of fruit bats

Megabats constitute the family Pteropodidae of the order Chiroptera (bats). They are also called fruit bats, Old World fruit bats, or—especially the genera Acerodon and Pteropus—flying foxes. They are the only member of the superfamily Pteropodoidea, which is one of two superfamilies in the suborder Yinpterochiroptera. Internal divisions of Pteropodidae have varied since subfamilies were first proposed in 1917. From three subfamilies in the 1917 classification, six are now recognized, along with various tribes. As of 2018, 197 species of megabat had been described.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Giant golden-crowned flying fox</span> Large bat species

The giant golden-crowned flying fox, also known as the golden-capped fruit bat, is a species of megabat endemic to the Philippines. Since its description in 1831, three subspecies of the giant golden-crowned flying fox have been recognized, one of which is extinct. The extinct subspecies was formerly recognized as a full species, the Panay golden-crowned flying fox. Formerly, this species was placed in the genus Pteropus; while it is no longer within the genus, it has many physical similarities to Pteropus megabats. It is one of the largest bat species in the world, weighing up to 1.4 kg (3.1 lb)—only the Indian and great flying fox can weigh more. It has the longest documented forearm length of any bat species at 21 cm (8.3 in).

<i>Pteropus</i> Genus of large bats

Pteropus is a genus of megabats which are among the largest bats in the world. They are commonly known as fruit bats or flying foxes, among other colloquial names. They live in South Asia, Southeast Asia, Australia, East Africa, and some oceanic islands in the Indian and Pacific Oceans. There are at least 60 extant species in the genus.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Little red flying fox</span> Species of bat

The little red flying-fox is a megachiropteran bat native to northern and eastern Australia. The species weighs about half a kilogram, one US pound, and is the smallest species of Pteropus in mainland Australia. P. scapulatus occurs at the coast and further inland, camping and flying to the tropical to temperate regions that provide them with an annual source of nectar. They exhibit an unusual method of obtaining drinking water during dry periods, skimming a stream's surface to gather it onto their fur while they are in flight.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Grey-headed flying fox</span> Species of bat

The grey-headed flying fox is a megabat native to Australia. The species shares mainland Australia with three other members of the genus Pteropus: the little red P. scapulatus, spectacled P. conspicillatus, and the black P. alecto. The grey-headed flying fox is the largest bat in Australia.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Spectacled flying fox</span> Species of bat

The spectacled flying fox, also known as the spectacled fruit bat, is a megabat that lives in Australia's north-eastern regions of Queensland. It is also found in New Guinea and on the offshore islands including Woodlark Island, Alcester Island, Kiriwina, and Halmahera.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Black flying fox</span> Species of mammal

The black flying fox or black fruit bat is a bat in the family Pteropodidae. It is among the largest bats in the world, but is considerably smaller than the largest species in its genus, Pteropus. The black flying fox is native to Australia, Papua New Guinea, and Indonesia. It is not a threatened species.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Livingstone's fruit bat</span> Species of bat

Livingstone's fruit bat, also called the Comoro flying fox, is a megabat in the genus Pteropus. It is an Old World fruit bat found only in the Anjouan and Mohéli islands in the Union of the Comoros in the western Indian Ocean.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Indian flying fox</span> Species of mammal

The Indian flying fox, also known as the greater Indian fruit bat, is a species of flying fox native to the Indian subcontinent. It is one of the largest bats in the world. It is of interest as a disease vector, as it is capable of transmitting several viruses to humans. It is nocturnal and feeds mainly on ripe fruits, such as mangoes and bananas, and nectar. This species is often regarded as vermin due to its destructive tendencies towards fruit farms, but the benefits of its pollination and seed propagation often outweigh the impacts of its fruit consumption.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Black-bearded flying fox</span> Species of mammal

The black-bearded flying fox is an endangered species of megabat in the genus Pteropus. It is endemic to Indonesia, found on the islands of Ambon, Buru, Seram, Banda, and Yamdena. Currently considered monotypic, it formerly included the Aru flying fox and Kei flying fox as subspecies.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Black-eared flying fox</span> Species of bat

The black-eared flying fox, species Pteropus melanotus, is a bat of the family Pteropodidae (megabats). Also known as Blyth's flying fox, it is found on the Andaman Islands and Nicobar Islands (India), and in Sumatra (Indonesia). A population on Christmas Island, which is critically endangered, has been placed as a subspecies of this population. The conservation and taxonomic status of that population was later re-established as a distinct species, the Christmas Island fruit-bat Pteropus natalis.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Great flying fox</span> Species of mammal

The great flying fox, also known as the greater flying fox or Bismarck flying fox, is a species of megabat in the genus Pteropus, found throughout lowland areas of New Guinea and in the Bismarck Archipelago. Conflicting evidence suggests that its closest relative is either the spectacled flying fox or, jointly, the Pelew and insular flying foxes. Two subspecies are recognized. At up to 1.6 kg (3.5 lb) in weight, it is among the heaviest bats in the world and the largest bat in Melanesia. It is a gregarious animal which roosts with hundreds or thousands of individuals. In part due to its wide variation in color, it has many taxonomic synonyms, including Pteropus degener, Pteropus papuanus, and Pteropus sepikensis. It may forage during the day or night in search of fruit, including figs or fruits from the family Sapotaceae. It is considered a least-concern species by the IUCN, though its numbers have been negatively impacted by what appeared to be a disease, as well as by hunting for bushmeat that occurs across its range.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Bonin flying fox</span> Species of bat

The Bonin flying fox, Bonin fruit bat, or in Japanese, Ogasawara giant bat, is a species of flying fox in the family Pteropodidae. It is endemic to four islands in Ogasawara Islands, Japan. Its natural habitat is subtropical forests. It is threatened by habitat loss.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Madagascan flying fox</span> Species of bat

The Madagascan flying fox, Madagascar flying-fox, or Madagascar fruit bat is a species of megabat in the genus Pteropus. It is endemic to Madagascar. Its natural habitats are diverse, and include moist lowland forests, dry forests, succulent woodlands, and spiny thickets, and mangroves. It eats figs and other fruits, flowers, and leaves. It is threatened by habitat loss.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Large flying fox</span> Species of fruit bat

The large flying fox, also known as the greater flying fox, Malayan flying fox, Malaysian flying fox, large fruit bat, kalang, or kalong, is a southeast Asian species of megabat in the family Pteropodidae. Despite its scientific name, it feeds exclusively on fruits, nectar, and flowers, like the other flying foxes of the genus Pteropus. It is noted for being one of the largest bats. As with nearly all other Old World fruit bats, it lacks the ability to echolocate but compensates for it with well-developed eyesight.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Pemba flying fox</span> Species of bat

The Pemba flying fox is a species of flying fox in the family Pteropodidae. It is endemic to the island of Pemba on the coast of Tanzania.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Christmas Island shrew</span> Species of mammal

The Christmas Island shrew, also known as the Christmas Island musk-shrew is an extremely rare or possibly extinct shrew from Christmas Island. It was variously placed as subspecies of the Asian gray shrew or the Southeast Asian shrew, but morphological differences and the large distance between the species indicate that it is an entirely distinct species.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Bismarck masked flying fox</span> Species of bat

The Bismarck masked flying fox is a species of flying fox in the family Pteropodidae found in Papua New Guinea and named after the Bismarck Archipelago. It was once considered a subspecies of Pteropus temminckii before being reassessed in 2001. This species has two subspecies, P. c. capistratus and P. c. ennisae. The IUCN classified it as Near Threatened in 2009, noting that the rate of decline is almost high enough to reclassify the species as Vulnerable.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Wildlife of Christmas Island</span>

The wildlife of Christmas Island is composed of the flora and fauna of this isolated island in the tropical Indian Ocean. Christmas Island is the summit plateau of an underwater volcano. It is mostly clad in tropical rainforest and has karst, cliffs, wetlands, coasts and sea. It is a small island with a land area of 135 km2 (52 sq mi), 63% of which has been declared a National park. Most of the rainforest remains intact and supports a large range of endemic species of animals and plants.

References

  1. 1 2 3 Hutson, A.M.; Kingston, T.; James, D.,Lumsden, L.; Molur, S.; Srinivasulu, C. (2008). "Pteropus melanotus". IUCN Red List of Threatened Species . 2008: e.T18740A8525654. doi: 10.2305/IUCN.UK.2008.RLTS.T18740A8525654.en . Retrieved 12 November 2021.{{cite journal}}: CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link)
  2. 1 2 3 4 Thomas, Oldfield (1887). "Report on a zoological collection made by the officers of H.M.S. 'Flying Fish' at Christmas Island. I. Mammalia". Proceedings of the Zoological Society of London. 1887. Academic Press, [etc.]: 511–14.
  3. 1 2 Simmons, N.B. (2005). "Subspecies Pteropus melanotus natalis". In Wilson, D.E.; Reeder, D.M (eds.). Mammal Species of the World: A Taxonomic and Geographic Reference (3rd ed.). Johns Hopkins University Press. pp. 312–529. ISBN   978-0-8018-8221-0. OCLC   62265494.
  4. 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 Todd, C. M.; Westcott, D. A.; Rose, K.; Martin, J. M.; Welbergen, J. A. (2018). "Slow growth and delayed maturation in a Critically Endangered insular flying fox (Pteropus natalis)". Journal of Mammalogy. 99 (6): 1, 510–1, 521. doi:10.1093/jmammal/gyy110. PMC   6283735 . PMID   30538341.
  5. 1 2 3 Beeton, B.; Burbidge, A.; Grigg, G.; Harrison, P.; How, R.; Humphreys, B.; McKenzie, N.; Woinarski, J. (2010). Final Report of the Christmas Island Expert Working Group to the Minister for Environment Protection, Heritage and the Arts (Report). Australian Government Department of the Environment and Energy. pp. 67–69.
  6. 1 2 3 4 "Pteropus natalis — Christmas Island Flying-fox, Christmas Island Fruit-bat". Species Profile and Threats Database. Australian Government Department of the Environment and Energy. Retrieved 24 December 2018.
  7. 1 2 Geyle, Hayley M.; Woinarski, John C. Z.; Baker, G. Barry; Dickman, Chris R.; Dutson, Guy; Fisher, Diana O.; Ford, Hugh; Holdsworth, Mark; Jones, Menna E.; Kutt, Alex; Legge, Sarah; Leiper, Ian; Loyn, Richard; Murphy, Brett P.; Menkhorst, Peter (2018-04-20). "Quantifying extinction risk and forecasting the number of impending Australian bird and mammal extinctions". Pacific Conservation Biology. 24 (2): 157–167. doi:10.1071/PC18006. hdl: 10536/DRO/DU:30109156 . ISSN   2204-4604.
  8. ↑ Chasen, F. N. (1940). A handlist of Malaysian mammals; a systematic list of the mammals of the Malay Peninsula, Sumatra, Borneo and Java, including the adjacent small islands (PDF). W.T. Cherry, Government Printer. pp. 22–30.
  9. 1 2 3 Tidemann, C. (1985). A study of the status, habitat requirements and management of the two species of bats on Christmas Island (Indian Ocean). Australian National Parks and Wildlife Service.
  10. ↑ James, D. J.; Dale, G.; Retallick, K.; Orchard, K. (2007). Christmas Island Biodiversity Monitoring Programme (PDF) (Report). Report to Department of Finance and Deregulation and Department of the Environment, Water, Heritage and the Arts. pp. 30–56. Archived from the original (PDF) on 2019-11-16.
  11. 1 2 3 4 5 Phalen, D. N.; Hall, J.; Ganesh, G.; Hartigan, A.; Smith, C.; De Jong, C.; Field, H.; Rose, K. (2017). "Genetic diversity and phylogeny of the Christmas Island flying fox (Pteropus melanotus natalis)". Journal of Mammalogy. 98 (2): 428–437. doi: 10.1093/jmammal/gyx001 . Lock-green.svg
  12. ↑ Almeida, F. C.; Giannini, N. P.; Simmons, N. B.; Helgen, K. M. (2014). "Each flying fox on its own branch: A phylogenetic tree for Pteropus and related genera (Chiroptera: Pteropodidae)". Molecular Phylogenetics and Evolution. 77: 83–95. doi: 10.1016/j.ympev.2014.03.009 . hdl: 11336/12485 . PMID   24662680. Open Access logo PLoS transparent.svg
  13. ↑ Richards, C. R.; Richards, G. C. (2008). "Christmas Island flying-fox Pteropus melanotus". The mammals of Australia. Reed New Holland. ISBN   978-1-877069-25-3.
  14. 1 2 Richards, G.C.; Hall, L.S.; Parish, S. (photography) (2012). A natural history of Australian bats : working the night shift. CSIRO Pub. pp. 26, 27, 144. ISBN   9780643103740.
  15. 1 2 3 Andrews, C. W. (1900). A monograph of Christmas Island (Indian Ocean). Stephen Austin and Sons. pp. 23–26.
  16. 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 Conservation Advice for Pteropus melanotus natalis (PDF) (Report). Australian Government Department of the Environment and Energy. 2013. pp. 1–15.
  17. ↑ Woinarski, J.; Flakus, S.; Tiernan, B. (2012). Results from a monitoring program for the Christmas Island flying-fox Pteropus (melanotus) natalis, 2006–2012 (Report). Parks Australia, Christmas Island.
  18. 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 James, D. J. (2008). Christmas Island Biodiversity Monitoring Program: December 2003 to April 2007 (PDF) (Report). Australian Government Director of National Parks. pp. 30–56. Archived from the original (PDF) on 2019-11-16.
  19. ↑ Tidemann, C. R. (1985). A study of the status, habitat requirements and management of the two species of bats on Christmas Island (Indian Ocean) (Report). Australian National Parks and Wildlife Service.
  20. 1 2 Hall, J.; Rose, K.; Smith, C.; De Jong, C.; Phalen, D.; Austen, J.; Field, H. (2014). "Health Assessment of the Christmas Island flying fox (Pteropus melanotus natalis)". Journal of Wildlife Diseases. 50 (3): 447–458. doi:10.7589/2013-09-245. PMID   24807172. S2CID   6979533.
  21. 1 2 Woinarski, J.; Flakus, S.; James, D. J.; Tiernan, B. (2014). "An Island-Wide Monitoring Program Demonstrates Decline in Reporting Rate for the Christmas Island Flying-Fox Pteropus melanotus natalis". Acta Chiropterologica. 16 (1): 117–127. doi:10.3161/150811014X683336. S2CID   85186586.
  22. 1 2 3 Flakus, S.; Pahor, S.; Detto, T.; Maple, D. (2014). Monitoring, Research and Management of the Christmas Island flying-fox (Pteropus melanotus natalis) (PDF) (Report). Australian Government Director of National Parks. pp. 1–22. Archived from the original (PDF) on 2019-12-25. Retrieved 2019-11-14.
  23. ↑ Tildemann, C. R.; Yorkston, H. D.; Russack, A. J. (1994). "The diet of cats, Felis catus, on Christmas Island, Indian Ocean". Wildlife Research. 21 (3): 279–286. doi:10.1071/WR9940279.
  24. ↑ Dorrestein, A.; Todd, C. M.; Westcott, D. A.; Martin, J. M.; Welbergen, J. A. (2019). "Impacts of an invasive ant species on roosting behavior of an island endemic flying-fox". Biotropica. 51 (1): 75–83. doi: 10.1111/btp.12620 . Lock-green.svg
  25. ↑ IUCN (2021-08-31). Pteropus melanotus: Todd, C.M., Dorrestein, A., Pulscher, L.A. & Welbergen, J.A.: The IUCN Red List of Threatened Species 2021: e.T18740A22082634 (Report). International Union for Conservation of Nature. doi:10.2305/iucn.uk.2021-3.rlts.t18740a22082634.en.
This page is based on this Wikipedia article
Text is available under the CC BY-SA 4.0 license; additional terms may apply.
Images, videos and audio are available under their respective licenses.