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An antibody (Ab) is the secreted form of a B cell receptor; the term immunoglobulin (Ig) can refer to either the membrane-bound form or the secreted form of the B cell receptor, but they are, broadly speaking, the same protein, and so the terms are often treated as synonymous. Antibodies are large, Y-shaped proteins belonging to the immunoglobulin superfamily which are used by the immune system to identify and neutralize foreign objects such as bacteria and viruses, including those that cause disease. Antibodies can recognize virtually any size antigen with diverse chemical compositions from molecules. Each antibody recognizes one or more specific antigens. This term literally means "antibody generator", as it is the presence of an antigen that drives the formation of an antigen-specific antibody. Each tip of the "Y" of an antibody contains a paratope that specifically binds to one particular epitope on an antigen, allowing the two molecules to bind together with precision. Using this mechanism, antibodies can effectively "tag" a microbe or an infected cell for attack by other parts of the immune system, or can neutralize it directly.
Natural killer cells, also known as NK cells or large granular lymphocytes (LGL), are a type of cytotoxic lymphocyte critical to the innate immune system. They belong to the rapidly expanding family of known innate lymphoid cells (ILC) and represent 5–20% of all circulating lymphocytes in humans. The role of NK cells is analogous to that of cytotoxic T cells in the vertebrate adaptive immune response. NK cells provide rapid responses to virus-infected cells, stressed cells, tumor cells, and other intracellular pathogens based on signals from several activating and inhibitory receptors. Most immune cells detect the antigen presented on major histocompatibility complex I (MHC-I) on infected cell surfaces, but NK cells can recognize and kill stressed cells in the absence of antibodies and MHC, allowing for a much faster immune reaction. They were named "natural killers" because of the notion that they do not require activation to kill cells that are missing "self" markers of MHC class I. This role is especially important because harmful cells that are missing MHC I markers cannot be detected and destroyed by other immune cells, such as T lymphocyte cells.
Cytotoxicity is the quality of being toxic to cells. Examples of toxic agents are toxic metals, toxic chemicals, microbe neurotoxins, radiation particles and even specific neurotransmitters when the system is out of balance. Also some types of venom, e.g. from the puff adder or brown recluse spider are toxic to cells.
Flow cytometry (FC) is a technique used to detect and measure the physical and chemical characteristics of a population of cells or particles.
Transplant rejection occurs when transplanted tissue is rejected by the recipient's immune system, which destroys the transplanted tissue. Transplant rejection can be lessened by determining the molecular similitude between donor and recipient and by use of immunosuppressant drugs after transplant.
Serology is the scientific study of serum and other body fluids. In practice, the term usually refers to the diagnostic identification of antibodies in the serum. Such antibodies are typically formed in response to an infection, against other foreign proteins, or to one's own proteins. In either case, the procedure is simple.
Antibody-dependent cellular cytotoxicity (ADCC), also referred to as antibody-dependent cell-mediated cytotoxicity, is a mechanism of cell-mediated immune defense whereby an effector cell of the immune system kills a target cell, whose membrane-surface antigens have been bound by specific antibodies. It is one of the mechanisms through which antibodies, as part of the humoral immune response, can act to limit and contain infection.
Monoclonal antibodies (mAbs) have varied therapeutic uses. It is possible to create a mAb that binds specifically to almost any extracellular target, such as cell surface proteins and cytokines. They can be used to render their target ineffective, to induce a specific cell signal, to cause the immune system to attack specific cells, or to bring a drug to a specific cell type.
Carboxyfluorescein succinimidyl ester (CFSE) is a fluorescent cell staining dye. CFSE is cell permeable and covalently couples, via its succinimidyl group, to intracellular molecules, notably, to intracellular lysine residues and other amine sources. Due to this covalent coupling reaction, fluorescent CFSE can be retained within cells for extremely long periods. Also, due to this stable linkage, once incorporated within cells, the dye is not transferred to adjacent cells.
CD16, also known as FcγRIII, is a cluster of differentiation molecule found on the surface of natural killer cells, neutrophils, monocytes, macrophages, and certain T cells. CD16 has been identified as Fc receptors FcγRIIIa (CD16a) and FcγRIIIb (CD16b), which participate in signal transduction. The most well-researched membrane receptor implicated in triggering lysis by NK cells, CD16 is a molecule of the immunoglobulin superfamily (IgSF) involved in antibody-dependent cellular cytotoxicity (ADCC). It can be used to isolate populations of specific immune cells through fluorescent-activated cell sorting (FACS) or magnetic-activated cell sorting, using antibodies directed towards CD16.
A panel-reactive antibody (PRA) is a group of antibodies in a test serum that are reactive against any of several known specific antigens in a panel of test leukocytes or purified HLA antigens from cells. It is an immunologic metric routinely performed by clinical laboratories on the blood of people awaiting organ transplantation.
Anti-double stranded DNA (Anti-dsDNA) antibodies are a group of anti-nuclear antibodies (ANA) the target antigen of which is double stranded DNA. Blood tests such as enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay (ELISA) and immunofluorescence are routinely performed to detect anti-dsDNA antibodies in diagnostic laboratories. They are highly diagnostic of systemic lupus erythematosus (SLE) and are implicated in the pathogenesis of lupus nephritis.
Immune tolerance in pregnancy or maternal immune tolerance is the immune tolerance shown towards the fetus and placenta during pregnancy. This tolerance counters the immune response that would normally result in the rejection of something foreign in the body, as can happen in cases of spontaneous abortion. It is studied within the field of reproductive immunology.
A viability assay is an assay that is created to determine the ability of organs, cells or tissues to maintain or recover a state of survival. Viability can be distinguished from the all-or-nothing states of life and death by the use of a quantifiable index that ranges between the integers of 0 and 1 or, if more easily understood, the range of 0% and 100%. Viability can be observed through the physical properties of cells, tissues, and organs. Some of these include mechanical activity, motility, such as with spermatozoa and granulocytes, the contraction of muscle tissue or cells, mitotic activity in cellular functions, and more. Viability assays provide a more precise basis for measurement of an organism's level of vitality.
Cytometry by time of flight, or CyTOF, is an application of mass cytometry used to quantify labeled targets on the surface and interior of single cells. CyTOF allows the quantification of multiple cellular components simultaneously using an ICP-MS detector.
Donor-specific antibodies (DSA) are a concept in transplantation medicine and describe the presence of antibodies specific to the Donor's HLA-Molecules. These antibodies can cause antibody-mediated rejection and are therefore considered a contraindication against transplantation in most cases. DSA are a result of B cell and plasma cell activation and bind to HLA and/or non-HLA molecules on the endothelium of the graft. They were first described in 1969 by Patel et al., who found that Transplant recipients who were positively tested for DSA using a complement-dependent cytotoxicity crossmatch assay had a higher risk of transplant rejection. DSA can either be pre-formed or can be formed as a response to the transplantion.
The enzyme-linked immunosorbent spot (ELISpot) is a type of assay that focuses on quantitatively measuring the frequency of cytokine secretion for a single cell. The ELISpot Assay is also a form of immunostaining since it is classified as a technique that uses antibodies to detect a protein analyte, with the word analyte referring to any biological or chemical substance being identified or measured.
Blood compatibility testing is conducted in a medical laboratory to identify potential incompatibilities between blood group systems in blood transfusion. It is also used to diagnose and prevent some complications of pregnancy that can occur when the baby has a different blood group from the mother. Blood compatibility testing includes blood typing, which detects the antigens on red blood cells that determine a person's blood type; testing for unexpected antibodies against blood group antigens ; and, in the case of blood transfusions, mixing the recipient's plasma with the donor's red blood cells to detect incompatibilities (crossmatching). Routine blood typing involves determining the ABO and RhD type, and involves both identification of ABO antigens on red blood cells and identification of ABO antibodies in the plasma. Other blood group antigens may be tested for in specific clinical situations.
Passive antibody therapy, also called serum therapy, is a subtype of passive immunotherapy that administers antibodies to target and kill pathogens or cancer cells. It is designed to draw support from foreign antibodies that are donated from a person, extracted from animals, or made in the laboratory to elicit an immune response instead of relying on the innate immune system to fight disease. It has a long history from the 18th century for treating infectious diseases and is now a common cancer treatment. The mechanism of actions include: antagonistic and agonistic reaction, complement-dependent cytotoxicity (CDC), and antibody-dependent cellular cytotoxicity (ADCC).
The sucrose lysis test is a diagnostic laboratory test used for diagnosing paroxysmal nocturnal hemoglobinuria (PNH), as well as for hypoplastic anemias and any hemolytic anemia with an unclear cause. The test works by using sucrose, which creates a low ionic strength environment that allows complement to bind to red blood cells. In individuals with PNH, some red blood cells are especially vulnerable to lysis caused by complement. The test may also produce suspicious results in other hematologic conditions, including megaloblastic anemia and autoimmune hemolytic anemia. False-negative results can occur when complement activity is absent in the serum. A simpler alternative called the sugar water test also involves mixing blood with sugar and observing for hemolysis, using the same principle as the sucrose lysis test.
References
- ↑ Schroeder, Harry W.; Cavacini, Lisa (2010). "Structure and function of immunoglobulins". Journal of Allergy and Clinical Immunology. 2010 Primer on Allergic and Immunologic Diseases. 125 (2, Supplement 2): S41–S52. doi:10.1016/j.jaci.2009.09.046. ISSN 0091-6749. PMC 3670108 . PMID 20176268.
- ↑ The Role of Complement in the Mechanism of Action of Rituximab for B-Cell Lymphoma: Implications for Therapy. Zhou 2008
- ↑ Complement dependent cytotoxicity activity of therapeutic antibody fragments is acquired by immunogenic glycan coupling. Archived 2016-04-09 at the Wayback Machine
- ↑ Meyer, Saskia; Leusen, Jeanette HW; Boross, Peter (2014). "Regulation of complement and modulation of its activity in monoclonal antibody therapy of cancer". mAbs. 6 (5): 1133–1144. doi:10.4161/mabs.29670. ISSN 1942-0862. PMC 4622586 . PMID 25517299.
- ↑ Wang, Xinhua; Mathieu, Mary; Brezski, Randall J. (2018). "IgG Fc engineering to modulate antibody effector functions". Protein & Cell. 9 (1): 63–73. doi:10.1007/s13238-017-0473-8. ISSN 1674-800X. PMC 5777978 . PMID 28986820.
- 1 2 3 4 Taylor, Ronald P.; Lindorfer, Margaret A. (2014). "The role of complement in mAb-based therapies of cancer". Methods. 65 (1): 18–27. doi:10.1016/j.ymeth.2013.07.027. ISSN 1095-9130. PMID 23886909.
- 1 2 Hernandez, Axel; Parmentier, Julie; Wang, Youzhen; Cheng, Jane; Bornstein, Gadi Gazit (2012). "Monoclonal antibody lead characterization: in vitro and in vivo methods". Antibody Engineering. Methods in Molecular Biology. Vol. 907. pp. 557–594. doi:10.1007/978-1-61779-974-7_32. ISBN 978-1-61779-973-0. ISSN 1940-6029. PMID 22907374.
- ↑ Gillissen, M.A.; Yasuda, E.; de Jong, G.; Levie, S.E.; Go, D.; Spits, H.; van Helden, P.M.; Hazenberg, M.D. (2016). "The modified FACS calcein AM retention assay: A high throughput flow cytometer based method to measure cytotoxicity". Journal of Immunological Methods. 434: 16–23. doi: 10.1016/j.jim.2016.04.002 . PMID 27084117.
- ↑ Gazzano-Santoro, Hélène; Ralph, Peter; Ryskamp, Thomas C; Chen, Anthony B; Mukku, Venkat R (1997). "A non-radioactive complement-dependent cytotoxicity assay for anti-CD20 monoclonal antibody". Journal of Immunological Methods. 202 (2): 163–171. doi:10.1016/S0022-1759(97)00002-1. PMID 9107305.
- 1 2 Gautreaux, Michael D. (2017), Orlando, Giuseppe; Remuzzi, Giuseppe; Williams, David F. (eds.), "Chapter 17 - Histocompatibility Testing in the Transplant Setting", Kidney Transplantation, Bioengineering and Regeneration, Academic Press: 223–234, doi:10.1016/B978-0-12-801734-0.00017-5, ISBN 9780128017340 , retrieved 2019-08-30
- ↑ Guillaume, Nicolas (2018). "Improved flow cytometry crossmatching in kidney transplantation". HLA. 92 (6): 375–383. doi:10.1111/tan.13403. ISSN 2059-2310. PMID 30270577. S2CID 52893602.