Dusky shark

Last updated

Dusky shark
Carcharhinus obscurus at Seaworld.jpg
Scientific classification OOjs UI icon edit-ltr.svg
Domain: Eukaryota
Kingdom: Animalia
Phylum: Chordata
Class: Chondrichthyes
Order: Carcharhiniformes
Family: Carcharhinidae
Genus: Carcharhinus
Species:
C. obscurus
Binomial name
Carcharhinus obscurus
(Lesueur, 1818)
Carcharhinus obscurus distmap.png
Confirmed (dark blue) and suspected (light blue) range of the dusky shark [2]
Synonyms

Carcharhinus iranzaeFourmanoir, 1961
Carcharhinus obscurellaDeng, Xiong & Zhan, 1981
Carcharias macrurusRamsay & Ogilby, 1887
Carcharinus iranzaeFourmanoir, 1961
Galeolamna eblisWhitley, 1944
Galeolamna greyi* Owen, 1853
Prionodon obvelatusValenciennes, 1844
Squalus obscurusLesueur, 1818

Contents

*ambiguous synonym

The dusky shark (Carcharhinus obscurus) is a species of requiem shark, in the family Carcharhinidae, occurring in tropical and warm-temperate continental seas worldwide. A generalist apex predator, the dusky shark can be found from the coast to the outer continental shelf and adjacent pelagic waters, and has been recorded from a depth of 400 m (1,300 ft). Populations migrate seasonally towards the poles in the summer and towards the equator in the winter, traveling hundreds to thousands of kilometers. One of the largest members of its genus, the dusky shark reaches more than 4 m (13 ft) in length and 350 kg (770 lb) in weight. It has a slender, streamlined body and can be identified by its short round snout, long sickle-shaped pectoral fins, ridge between the first and second dorsal fins, and faintly marked fins.

Adult dusky sharks have a broad and varied diet, consisting mostly of bony fishes, sharks and rays, and cephalopods, but also occasionally crustaceans, sea stars, bryozoans, sea turtles, marine mammals, carrion, and garbage. This species is viviparous with a three-year reproductive cycle; females bear litters of 3–14 young after a gestation period of 22–24 months, after which there is a year of rest before they become pregnant again. This shark, tied with the Spiny dogfish as a result is the animal with the longest gestation period. Females are capable of storing sperm for long periods, as their encounters with suitable mates may be few and far between due to their nomadic lifestyle and low overall abundance. Dusky sharks are one of the slowest-growing and latest-maturing sharks, not reaching adulthood until around 20 years of age.

Because of its slow reproductive rate, the dusky shark is very vulnerable to human-caused population depletion. This species is highly valued by commercial fisheries for its fins, used in shark fin soup, and for its meat, skin, and liver oil. It is also esteemed by recreational fishers. The International Union for Conservation of Nature (IUCN) has assessed this species as Endangered worldwide and Vulnerable off the eastern United States, where populations have dropped to 15–20% of 1970s levels. The dusky shark is regarded as potentially dangerous to humans due to its large size, but there are few attacks attributable to it.

Taxonomy

French naturalist Charles Alexandre Lesueur published the first scientific description of the dusky shark in an 1818 issue of Journal of the Academy of Natural Sciences of Philadelphia. He placed it in the genus Squalus and gave it the specific epithet obscurus (Latin for "dark" or "dim"), referring to its coloration. [3] [4] Subsequent authors have recognized this species as belonging to the genus Carcharhinus. Lesueur did not designate a type specimen, though he was presumably working from a shark caught in North American waters. [5]

Many early sources gave the scientific name of the dusky shark as Carcharias (later Carcharhinus) lamiella, which originated from an 1882 account by David Starr Jordan and Charles Henry Gilbert. Although Jordan and Gilbert referred to a set of jaws that came from a dusky shark, the type specimen they designated was later discovered to be a copper shark (C. brachyurus). Therefore, C. lamiella is not considered a synonym of C. obscurus but rather of C. brachyurus. [4] [6] Other common names for this species include bay shark, black whaler, brown common gray shark, brown dusky shark, brown shark, common whaler, dusky ground shark, dusky whaler, river whaler, shovelnose, and slender whaler shark. [7]

Phylogeny and evolution

Carcharhinus altimus

Carcharhinus plumbeus

Carcharhinus falciformis

Carcharhinus perezi

Carcharhinus galapagensis

Carcharhinus obscurus

Carcharhinus longimanus

Prionace glauca

Phylogenetic relationships of the dusky shark, based on allozyme sequences. [8]

Teeth belonging to the dusky shark are fairly well represented in the fossil record, though assigning Carcharhinus teeth to species can be problematic. [9] Dusky shark teeth dating to the Miocene (23-5.3 Ma) have been recovered from the Kendeace and Grand Bay formations in Carriacou, the Grenadines, [10] the Moghra Formation in Egypt, [11] Polk County, Florida, [12] and possibly Cerro La Cruz in northern Venezuela. [13] Teeth dating to the Late Miocene or Early Pliocene (11.6-3.6 Ma) are abundant in the Yorktown Formation and the Pungo River, North Carolina, and from the Chesapeake Bay region; these teeth differ slightly from the modern dusky shark, and have often been misidentified as belonging to the oceanic whitetip shark (C. longimanus). [9] Dusky shark teeth have also been recovered from the vicinity of two baleen whales in North Carolina, one preserved in Goose Creek Limestone dating to the Late Pliocene (c. 3.5 Ma), and the other in mud dating to the Pleistocene-Holocene (c. 12,000 years ago). [14]

In 1982, Jack Garrick published a phylogenetic analysis of Carcharhinus based on morphology, in which he placed the dusky shark and the Galapagos shark (C. galapagensis) at the center of the "obscurus group". The group consisted of large, triangular-toothed sharks with a ridge between the dorsal fins, and also included the bignose shark (C. altimus), the Caribbean reef shark (C. perezi), the sandbar shark (C. plumbeus), and the oceanic whitetip shark. [15] This interpretation was largely upheld by Leonard Compagno in his 1988 phenetic study, [16] and by Gavin Naylor in his 1992 allozyme sequence study. Naylor was able to further resolve the interrelationships of the "ridge-backed" branch of Carcharhinus, finding that the dusky shark, Galapagos shark, oceanic whitetip shark, and blue shark (Prionace glauca) comprise its most derived clade. [8]

Distribution and habitat

A female dusky shark on display at Sea World, Queensland; this species is found throughout Australian waters. Dusky shark seaworld.jpg
A female dusky shark on display at Sea World, Queensland; this species is found throughout Australian waters.

The range of the dusky shark extends worldwide, albeit discontinuously, in tropical and warm-temperate waters. In the western Atlantic Ocean, it is found from Massachusetts and the Georges Bank to southern Brazil, including the Bahamas and Cuba. In the eastern Atlantic Ocean, it has been reported from the western and central Mediterranean Sea, the Canary Islands, Cape Verde, Senegal, Sierra Leone, and possibly elsewhere including Portugal, Spain, Morocco, and Madeira. In the Indian Ocean, it is found off South Africa, Mozambique, and Madagascar, with sporadic records in the Arabian Sea, the Bay of Bengal, and perhaps the Red Sea. In the Pacific Ocean, it occurs off Japan, mainland China and Taiwan, Vietnam, Australia, and New Caledonia in the west, and from southern California to the Gulf of California, around Revillagigedo, and possibly off northern Chile in the east. Records of dusky sharks from the northeastern and eastern central Atlantic, and around tropical islands, may in fact be of Galapagos sharks. [1] [2] Mitochondrial DNA and microsatellite evidence suggest that Indonesian and Australian sharks represent distinct populations. [17]

Residing off continental coastlines from the surf zone to the outer continental shelf and adjacent oceanic waters, the dusky shark occupies an intermediate habitat that overlaps with its more specialized relatives, such as the inshore sandbar shark, the pelagic silky shark (C. falciformis) and oceanic whitetip shark, the deepwater bignose shark, and the islandic Galapagos shark and silvertip shark (C. albimarginatus). [5] One tracking study in the northern Gulf of Mexico found that it spends most of its time at depths of 10–80 m (33–262 ft), while making occasional forays below 200 m (660 ft); this species has been known to dive as deep as 400 m (1,300 ft). It prefers water temperatures of 19–28 °C (66–82 °F), and avoids areas of low salinity such as estuaries. [4] [18]

The dusky shark is nomadic and strongly migratory, undertaking recorded movements of up to 3,800 km (2,400 mi); adults generally move longer distances than juveniles. Sharks along both coasts of North America shift northward with warmer summer temperatures, and retreat back towards the equator in winter. [1] Off South Africa, young males and females over 0.9 m (3.0 ft) long disperse southward and northward respectively (with some overlap) from the nursery area off KwaZulu-Natal; they join the adults several years later by a yet-unidentified route. In addition, juveniles spend spring and summer in the surf zone and fall and winter in offshore waters, and as they approach 2.2 m (7.2 ft) in length begin to conduct a north-south migration between KwaZulu-Natal in the winter and the Western Cape in summer. Still-larger sharks, over 2.8 m (9.2 ft) long, migrate as far as southern Mozambique. [1] [5] [19] Off Western Australia, adult and juvenile dusky sharks migrate towards the coast in summer and fall, though not to the inshore nurseries occupied by newborns. [1]

Description

Carcharhinus obscurus.jpg
Carcharhinus obscurus drawing.jpg
The dusky shark can be identified by its sickle-shaped first dorsal and pectoral fins, with the former positioned over the rear tips of the latter
Carcharhinus obscurus upper teeth.jpg
Carcharhinus obscurus lower teeth.jpg
Upper and lower teeth

One of the largest members of its genus, the dusky shark commonly reaches a length of 3.2 m (10 ft) and a weight of 160–180 kg (350–400 lb); the maximum recorded length and weight are 4.2 m (14 ft) and 372 kg (820 lb) respectively. [7] [20] [21] However, the maximum reported size of the species is 4.5 m (15 ft), while the maximum weight is reported to reach up to 500 kg (1,100 lb). [22] Females grow larger than males. [23] This shark has a slender, streamlined body with a broadly rounded snout no longer than the width of the mouth. The nostrils are preceded by barely developed flaps of skin. The medium-sized, circular eyes are equipped with nictitating membranes (protective third eyelids). The mouth has very short, subtle furrows at the corners and contains 13-15 (typically 14) tooth rows on either side of both jaws. The upper teeth are distinctively broad, triangular, and slightly oblique with strong, coarse serrations, while the lower teeth are narrower and upright, with finer serrations. The five pairs of gill slits are fairly long. [20]

The large pectoral fins measure around one-fifth as long as the body, and have a falcate (sickle-like) shape tapering to a point. The first dorsal fin is of moderate size and somewhat falcate, with a pointed apex and a strongly concave rear margin; its origin lies over the pectoral fin free rear tips. The second dorsal fin is much smaller and is positioned about opposite the anal fin. A low dorsal ridge is present between the dorsal fins. The caudal fin is large and high, with a well-developed lower lobe and a ventral notch near the tip of the upper lobe. [24] The dermal denticles are diamond-shaped and closely set, each bearing five horizontal ridges leading to teeth on the posterior margin. [20] This species is bronzy to bluish gray above and white below, which extends onto the flanks as a faint lighter stripe. The fins, particularly the underside of the pectoral fins and the lower caudal fin lobe) darken towards the tips; this is more obvious in juveniles. [25] Dusky sharks can be found at Redondo Beach, southern California to the Gulf of California, and to Ecuador. But sometimes rarely off southern California; common in tropics. Dusky sharks have a total length of at least 3.6 m (11.8 ft) or possibly to 4.2 m (13.8 ft). At birth, dusky sharks are about a length of 70–100 cm (27.6-39.3 in). In the surf zone, dusky sharks swim to a depth of 573 m (1,879 ft). Dusky sharks have a color of Gray or beige.

Biology and ecology

As an apex predator positioned at the highest level of the trophic web, the dusky shark is generally less abundant than other sharks that share its range. [5] However, high concentrations of individuals, especially juveniles, can be found at particular locations. [4] Adults are often found following ships far from land, such as in the Agulhas Current. [19] A tracking study off the mouth of the Cape Fear River in North Carolina reported an average swimming speed of 0.8 km/h (0.50 mph). [26] The dusky shark is one of the hosts of the sharksucker (Echeneis naucrates). [27] Known parasites of this species include the tapeworms Anthobothrium laciniatum, [28] Dasyrhynchus pacificus, [29] Platybothrium kirstenae, [30] Floriceps saccatus, [31] Tentacularia coryphaenae, [32] and Triloculatum triloculatum, [33] the monogeneans Dermophthirius carcharhini [34] and Loimos salpinggoides, [35] the leech Stibarobdella macrothela, [36] the copepods Alebion sp., Pandarus cranchii, [37] P. sinuatus, [20] and P. smithii, the praniza larvae of gnathiid isopods, [37] and the sea lamprey (Petromyzon marinus). [38]

Full-grown dusky sharks have no significant natural predators. [20] Major predators of young sharks include the ragged tooth shark (Carcharias taurus), the great white shark (Carcharodon carcharias), the bull shark (C. leucas), and the tiger shark (Galeocerdo cuvier). Off KwaZulu-Natal, the use of shark nets to protect beaches has reduced the populations of these large predators, leading to a dramatic increase in the number of juvenile dusky sharks (a phenomenon called "predator release"). In turn, the juvenile sharks have decimated populations of small bony fishes, with negative consequences for the biodiversity of the local ecosystem. [5] [39]

Feeding

The bluefish is a major prey species of dusky sharks in the northwestern Atlantic. Bluefish noaa.jpg
The bluefish is a major prey species of dusky sharks in the northwestern Atlantic.

The dusky shark is a generalist that takes a wide variety of prey from all levels of the water column, though it favors hunting near the bottom. [25] [40] A large individual can consume over a tenth of its body weight at a single sitting. [41] The bite force exerted by a 2 m (6.6 ft) long dusky shark has been measured at 60 kg (130 lb) over the 2 mm2 (0.0031 in2) area at the tip of a tooth. This is the highest figure thus far measured from any shark, though it also reflects the concentration of force at the tooth tip. [42] Dense aggregations of young sharks, forming in response to feeding opportunities, have been documented in the Indian Ocean. [1]

The known diet of the dusky shark encompasses pelagic fishes, including herring and anchovies, tuna and mackerel, billfish, jacks, needlefish and flyingfish, threadfins, hairtails, lancetfish, and lanternfish; demersal fishes, including mullets, porgies, grunts, and flatheads, eels, lizardfish, cusk eels, gurnards, and flatfish; reef fishes, including barracudas, goatfish, spadefish, groupers, scorpionfish, and porcupinefish; cartilaginous fishes, including dogfish, sawsharks, angel sharks, catsharks, thresher sharks, smoothhounds, smaller requiem sharks, sawfish, guitarfish, skates, stingrays, and butterfly rays; and invertebrates, including gastropods, cephalopods, decapod crustaceans, barnacles, and sea stars. Very rarely, the largest dusky sharks may also consume sea turtles, marine mammals (mainly as carrion), and human refuse. [4] [5] [40] [43] [44]

In the northwestern Atlantic, around 60% of the dusky shark's diet consists of bony fishes, from over ten families with bluefish (Pomatomus saltatrix) and summer flounder (Paralichthys dentatus) being especially important. Cartilaginous fishes, mainly skates and their egg cases, are the second-most important dietary component, while the lady crab (Ovalipes ocellatus) is also a relatively significant food source. [40] In South African and Australian waters, bony fishes are again the most important prey type. Newborn and juvenile sharks subsist mainly on small pelagic prey such as sardines and squid; older sharks over 2 m (6.6 ft) long broaden their diets to include larger bony and cartilaginous fishes. [45] [46] The run of the southern African pilchard (Sardinops sagax), occurring off the eastern coast of South Africa every winter, is attended by medium and large-sized dusky sharks. Pregnant and post-partum females do not join, possibly because the energy cost of gestation leaves them unable to pursue such swift prey. [41] One South African study reported that 0.2% of the sharks examined had preyed upon bottlenose dolphins (Tursiops truncatus). [47]

Life history

Like other requiem sharks, the dusky shark is viviparous: the developing embryos are initially nourished by a yolk sac, which is converted into a placental connection to the mother once the yolk supply is exhausted. Mating occurs during spring in the northwestern Atlantic, while there appears to be no reproductive seasonality in other regions such as off South Africa. [4] [5] Females are capable of storing masses of sperm, possibly from multiple males, for months to years within their nidamental glands (an organ that secretes egg cases). This would be advantageous given the sharks' itinerant natures and low natural abundance, which would make encounters with suitable mates infrequent and unpredictable. [48]

With a gestation period estimated at up to 22–24 months and a one-year resting period between pregnancies, female dusky sharks bear at most one litter of young every three years. [1] Litter size ranges from 3 to 16, with 6 to 12 being typical, and does not correlate with female size. [4] [41] Sharks in the western Atlantic tend to produce slightly smaller litters than those from the southeastern Atlantic (averaging 8 versus 10 pups per litter). [20] Depending on region, birthing may occur throughout the year or over a span of several months: newborn sharks have been reported from late winter to summer in the northwestern Atlantic, in summer and fall off Western Australia, and throughout the year with a peak in fall off southern Africa. [5] [25] Females move into shallow inshore habitats such as lagoons to give birth, as such areas offer their pups rich food supplies and shelter from predation (including from their own species), and leave immediately afterward. [4] [46] These nursery areas are known along the coasts of KwaZulu-Natal, southwestern Australia, western Baja California, and the eastern United States from New Jersey to North Carolina. [1] [4]

Life history parameters of the dusky shark
RegionMale length and age at maturityFemale length and age at maturity
Northwestern Atlantic2.80 m (9.2 ft), 19 years [23] 2.84 m (9.3 ft), 21 years [23]
Eastern South Africa2.80 m (9.2 ft), 19–21 years [4] [49] [50] 2.60–3.00 m (8.53–9.84 ft), 17–24 years [4] [49]
Indonesia2.80–3.00 m (9.19–9.84 ft), age unknown [51] 2.80 m (9.2 ft), age unknown [51]
Western Australia2.65–2.80 m (8.7–9.2 ft), 18–23 years [25] [52] 2.95–3.10 m (9.7–10.2 ft), 27–32 years [25] [53]

Newborn dusky sharks measure 0.7–1.0 m (2.3–3.3 ft) long; [1] pup size increases with female size, and decreases with litter size. There is evidence that females can determine the size at which their pups are born, so as to improve their chances of survival across better or worse environmental conditions. Females also provision their young with energy reserves, stored in a liver that comprises one-fifth of the pup's weight, which sustains the newborn until it learns to hunt for itself. [41] The dusky shark is one of the slowest-growing shark species, reaching sexual maturity only at a substantial size and age (see table). [54] Various studies have found growth rates to be largely similar across geographical regions and between sexes. [49] [51] [52] The annual growth rate is 8–11 cm (3.1–4.3 in) over the first five years of life. [55] The maximum lifespan is believed to be 40–50 years or more. [54]

Human interactions

Dusky shark tooth on a Gilbertese weapon. Carcharhinus obscurus tooth on Gilbertese weapon (FMNH 99071) - journal.pone.0059855.g002.png
Dusky shark tooth on a Gilbertese weapon.

Danger to humans

The dusky shark is considered to be potentially dangerous to humans because of its large size, though little is known of how it behaves towards people underwater. [5] As of 2009, the International Shark Attack File lists it as responsible for six attacks on people and boats, three of them unprovoked and one fatal. [56] However, attacks attributed to this species off Bermuda and other islands were probably in reality caused by Galapagos sharks. [5]

Shark nets

Shark nets used to protect beaches in South Africa and Australia entangle adult and larger juvenile dusky sharks in some numbers. From 1978 to 1999, an average of 256 individuals were caught annually in nets off KwaZulu-Natal; species-specific data is not available for nets off Australia. [54]

In aquariums

Young dusky sharks adapt well to display in public aquariums. [5]

Fishing

Dusky sharks are highly valued by commercial fisheries. Carcharhinus obscurus noaa.jpg
Dusky sharks are highly valued by commercial fisheries.

The dusky shark is one of the most sought-after species for shark fin trade, as its fins are large and contain a high number of internal rays (ceratotrichia). [54] In addition, the meat is sold fresh, frozen, dried and salted, or smoked, the skin is made into leather, and the liver oil is processed for vitamins. [7] Dusky sharks are taken by targeted commercial fisheries operating off eastern North America, southwestern Australia, and eastern South Africa using multi-species longlines and gillnets. The southwestern Australian fishery began in the 1940s and expanded in the 1970s to yield 500–600 tons per year. The fishery utilizes selective demersal gillnets that take almost exclusively young sharks under three years old, with 18–28% of all newborns captured in their first year. Demographic models suggest that the fishery is sustainable, provided that the mortality rate of sharks under 2 m (6.6 ft) long is under 4%. [54]

In addition to commercial shark fisheries, dusky sharks are also caught as bycatch on longlines meant for tuna and swordfish (and usually kept for its valuable fins), and by recreational fishers. Large numbers of dusky sharks, mostly juveniles, are caught by sport fishers off South Africa and eastern Australia. This shark was once one of the most important species in the Florida trophy shark tournaments, before the population collapsed. [54]

Conservation

The International Union for Conservation of Nature (IUCN) has assessed this species as Endangered worldwide. The American Fisheries Society has assessed North American dusky shark populations as Vulnerable. [20] Its very low reproductive rate renders the dusky shark extremely susceptible to overfishing.

Stocks off the eastern United States are severely overfished; a 2006 stock assessment survey by the U.S. National Marine Fisheries Service (NMFS) showed that its population had dropped to 15–20% of 1970s levels. In 1997, the dusky shark was identified as a Species of Concern by the NMFS, meaning that it warranted conservation concern but there was insufficient information for listing on the U.S. Endangered Species Act (ESA). [57] Commercial and recreational retention of dusky sharks was prohibited in 1998, but this has been of limited effectiveness due to high bycatch mortality on multi-species gear. In addition, some 2,000 dusky sharks were caught by recreational fishers in 2003 despite the ban. In 2005, North Carolina implemented a time/area closure to reduce the impact of recreational fishing. [58] To aid conservation efforts, molecular techniques using polymerase chain reaction (PCR) have been developed that can identify whether marketed shark parts (e.g. fins) are from prohibited species like the dusky shark, versus similar allowed species such as the sandbar shark. [59]

The New Zealand Department of Conservation has classified the dusky shark as "Migrant" with the qualifier "Secure Overseas" under the New Zealand Threat Classification System. [60]

Related Research Articles

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Oceanic whitetip shark</span> Species of requiem shark

The oceanic whitetip shark is a large pelagic requiem shark inhabiting tropical and warm temperate seas. It has a stocky body with long, white-tipped, rounded fins. The species is typically solitary, though they may gather in large numbers at food concentrations. Bony fish and cephalopods are the main components of its diet and females give live birth.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Grey reef shark</span> Species of shark

The grey reef shark is a species of requiem shark, in the family Carcharhinidae. One of the most common reef sharks in the Indo-Pacific, it is found as far east as Easter Island and as far west as South Africa. This species is most often seen in shallow water near the drop-offs of coral reefs. It has the typical "reef shark" shape, with a broad, round snout and large eyes. It can be distinguished from similar species by the plain or white-tipped first dorsal fin, the dark tips on the other fins, the broad, black rear margin on the tail fin, and the lack of a ridge between the dorsal fins. Most individuals are less than 1.88 m (6.2 ft) long.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Silky shark</span> Species of fish

The silky shark, also known by numerous names such as blackspot shark, gray whaler shark, olive shark, ridgeback shark, sickle shark, sickle-shaped shark and sickle silk shark, is a species of requiem shark, in the family Carcharhinidae, named for the smooth texture of its skin. It is one of the most abundant sharks in the pelagic zone, and can be found around the world in tropical waters. Highly mobile and migratory, this shark is most often found over the edge of the continental shelf down to 50 m (164 ft). The silky shark has a slender, streamlined body and typically grows to a length of 2.5 m. It can be distinguished from other large requiem sharks by its relatively small first dorsal fin with a curving rear margin, its tiny second dorsal fin with a long free rear tip, and its long, sickle-shaped pectoral fins. It is a deep, metallic bronze-gray above and white below.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Sandbar shark</span> Species of shark

The sandbar shark, also known as the brown shark or thickskin shark, is a species of requiem shark, and part of the family Carcharhinidae, native to the Atlantic Ocean and the Indo-Pacific. It is distinguishable by its very high first dorsal fin and interdorsal ridge. It is not to be confused with the similarly named sand tiger shark, or Carcharias taurus.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Dusky smooth-hound</span> Species of shark

The dusky smooth-hound, also called the smooth dogfish or the dog shark, is a species of houndshark in the family Triakidae. This shark is an olive grey or brown in color, and may have shades of yellow or grayish white. Females live to 16 years and males have a lifespan of 10 years. M. canis was the first shark recognised to have viral infections.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Smooth hammerhead</span> Species of shark

The smooth hammerhead is a species of hammerhead shark, and part of the family Sphyrnidae. This species is named "smooth hammerhead" because of the distinctive shape of the head, which is flattened and laterally extended into a hammer shape, without an indentation in the middle of the front margin. Unlike other hammerheads, this species prefers temperate waters and occurs worldwide at medium latitudes. In the summer, these sharks migrate towards the poles following cool water masses, sometimes forming schools numbering in the hundreds to thousands.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Copper shark</span> Species of shark

The copper shark, bronze whaler, or narrowtooth shark is a species of requiem shark, family Carcharhinidae, found mostly at temperate latitudes. It is distributed in a number of separate populations in the northeastern and southwestern Atlantic, off southern Africa, in the northwestern and eastern Pacific, and around Australia and New Zealand, with scattered reports from equatorial regions. This species can be found from brackish rivers and estuaries, to shallow bays and harbors, to offshore waters 100 m (330 ft) deep or more. Females are found apart from males for most of the year, and conduct seasonal migrations. A large species reaching 3.3 m (11 ft) long, the copper shark is difficult to distinguish from other large requiem sharks. It is characterized by its narrow, hook-shaped upper teeth, lack of a prominent ridge between the dorsal fins, and plain bronze coloration.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Silvertip shark</span> Species of shark

The silvertip shark is a large species of requiem shark, in the family Carcharhinidae, with a fragmented distribution throughout the tropical Indian and Pacific Oceans. It is often encountered around offshore islands and coral reefs, and has been known to dive to a depth of 800 m (2,600 ft). The silvertip shark resembles a larger and bulkier grey reef shark, but can be easily identified by the prominent white margins on its fins. It attains a maximum length of 3 m (10 ft).

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Blacktip shark</span> Species of shark

The blacktip shark is a species of requiem shark, and part of the family Carcharhinidae. It is common to coastal tropical and subtropical waters around the world, including brackish habitats. Genetic analyses have revealed substantial variation within this species, with populations from the western Atlantic Ocean isolated and distinct from those in the rest of its range. The blacktip shark has a stout, fusiform body with a pointed snout, long gill slits, and no ridge between the dorsal fins. Most individuals have black tips or edges on the pectoral, dorsal, pelvic, and caudal fins. It usually attains a length of 1.5 m (4.9 ft).

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Caribbean reef shark</span> Species of shark

The Caribbean reef shark is a species of requiem shark, belonging to the family Carcharhinidae. It is found in the tropical waters of the western Atlantic Ocean from Florida to Brazil, and is the most commonly encountered reef shark in the Caribbean Sea. With a robust, streamlined body typical of the requiem sharks, this species is difficult to tell apart from other large members of its family such as the dusky shark and the silky shark. Distinguishing characteristics include dusky-colored fins without prominent markings, a short free rear tip on the second dorsal fin, and tooth shape and number.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Galapagos shark</span> Species of shark

The Galapagos shark is a species of requiem shark, in the family Carcharhinidae, found worldwide. It favors clear reef environments around oceanic islands, where it is often the most abundant shark species. A large species that often reaches 3.0 m (9.8 ft), the Galapagos reef shark has a typical fusiform "reef shark" shape and is very difficult to distinguish from the dusky shark and the grey reef shark. An identifying character of this species is its tall first dorsal fin, which has a slightly rounded tip and originates over the rear tips of the pectoral fins.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Blacknose shark</span> Species of shark

The blacknose shark is a species of requiem shark, belonging to the family Carcharhinidae, common in the tropical and subtropical waters of the western Atlantic Ocean. This species generally inhabits coastal seagrass, sand, or rubble habitats, with adults preferring deeper water than juveniles. A small shark typically measuring 1.3 m (4.3 ft) long, the blacknose has a typical streamlined "requiem shark" shape with a long, rounded snout, large eyes, and a small first dorsal fin. Its common name comes from a characteristic black blotch on the tip of its snout, though this may be indistinct in older individuals.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Bignose shark</span> Species of shark

The bignose shark is a species of requiem shark, in the family Carcharhinidae. Distributed worldwide in tropical and subtropical waters, this migratory shark frequents deep waters around the edges of the continental shelf. It is typically found at depths of 90–430 m (300–1,410 ft), though at night it may move towards the surface or into shallower water. The bignose shark is plain-colored and grows to at least 2.7–2.8 m (8.9–9.2 ft) in length. It has a long, broad snout with prominent nasal skin flaps, and tall, triangular upper teeth. Its pectoral fins are long and almost straight, and there is a ridge on its back between the two dorsal fins.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Pigeye shark</span> Species of shark

The pigeye shark or Java shark is an uncommon species of requiem shark, in the family Carcharhinidae, found in the warm coastal waters of the eastern Atlantic and western Indo-Pacific. It prefers shallow, murky environments with soft bottoms, and tends to roam within a fairly localised area. With its bulky grey body, small eyes, and short, blunt snout, the pigeye shark looks almost identical to the better-known bull shark. The two species differ in vertebral count, the relative sizes of the dorsal fins, and other subtle traits. This shark typically reaches lengths of 1.9–2.5 m (6.2–8.2 ft).

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Spinner shark</span> Species of shark

The spinner shark is a type of requiem shark, in the family Carcharhinidae, named for the spinning leaps it makes as a part of its feeding strategy. This species occurs in tropical and warm temperate waters worldwide, except for in the eastern Pacific Ocean. It is found from coastal to offshore habitats to a depth of 100 m (330 ft), though it prefers shallow water. The spinner shark resembles a larger version of the blacktip shark, with a slender body, long snout, and black-marked fins. This species can be distinguished from the blacktip shark by the first dorsal fin, which has a different shape and is placed further back, and by the black tip on the anal fin. It attains a maximum length of 3 m (9.8 ft).

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Nervous shark</span> Species of shark

The nervous shark is a species of requiem shark, and part of the family Carcharhinidae, so named because of its timid behavior in regard to humans. It is common in shallow, coastal waters off northern Australia, Papua New Guinea, and the Solomon Islands. A small brownish or grayish shark typically measuring 1.0–1.3 m (3.3–4.3 ft) long, this species has a short, blunt snout, oval eyes, and a relatively large second dorsal fin. The leading margins of most fins are finely edged with black, and the lower caudal fin lobe is black-tipped.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Finetooth shark</span> Species of shark

The finetooth shark is a species of requiem shark, in the family Carcharhinidae, found in the western Atlantic Ocean, from North Carolina to Brazil. It forms large schools in shallow, coastal waters, and migrates seasonally following warm water. A relatively small, slender-bodied shark, the finetooth shark can be identified by its needle-like teeth, dark blue-gray dorsal coloration, and long gill slits. It attains a maximum length of 1.9 m (6.2 ft). The diet of this species consists primarily of small bony fishes, in particular menhaden. Like other members of its family, it is viviparous with females giving birth to two to six pups in estuarine nursery areas every other year.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Night shark</span> Species of shark

The night shark is a species of requiem shark, in the family Carcharhinidae, found in the temperate and tropical waters of the Atlantic Ocean. An inhabitant of the outer continental shelf and upper continental slope, this shark most commonly occurs at depths of 50–600 m (160–1,970 ft) and conducts a diel vertical migration, spending the day in deeper water and moving into shallower waters at night. Off northeastern Brazil, large numbers congregate around seamounts of varying depths. A slender, streamlined species, the night shark typically reaches a length of 2 m (6.6 ft). It can be identified by its long, pointed snout and large, green eyes, and is dark grayish blue or brown above and white below.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Milk shark</span> Species of shark

The milk shark is a species of requiem shark, and part of the family Carcharhinidae, whose common name comes from an Indian belief that consumption of its meat promotes lactation. The largest and most widely distributed member of its genus, the milk shark typically measures 1.1 m (3.6 ft) long, and can be found in coastal tropical waters throughout the eastern Atlantic and the Indo-Pacific regions. Occurring from the surface to a depth of 200 m (660 ft), this species is common near beaches and in estuaries, and has been recorded swimming up rivers in Cambodia. Juveniles are known to inhabit tidal pools and seagrass meadows. The milk shark has a slender body with a long, pointed snout and large eyes, and is a nondescript gray above and white below. This shark can be distinguished from similar species in its range by the long furrows at the corners of its mouth, and seven to 15 enlarged pores just above them.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Australian blackspot shark</span> Species of shark

The Australian blackspot shark or Coates's shark is a species of requiem shark found off northern Australia and possibly also off the coast of New Guinea. It belongs to a species complex of Blackspot sharks in the family Carcharhinidae. These sharks are not widely studied due to their cryptic nature, but there was a recent reclassification distinguishing it from the Whitecheek shark and the Blackspot Shark in 2012. Much of the existing literature predates this reclassification and groups the Australian blackspot shark with the aforementioned closely related species.

References

  1. 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 Rigby, C.L.; Barreto, R.; Carlson, J.; Fernando, D.; Fordham, S.; Francis, M.P.; Herman, K.; Jabado, R.W.; Liu, K.M.; Marshall, A.; Pacoureau, N.; Romanov, E.; Sherley, R.B.; Winker, H. (2019). "Carcharhinus obscurus". IUCN Red List of Threatened Species . 2019: e.T3852A2872747. doi: 10.2305/IUCN.UK.2019-3.RLTS.T3852A2872747.en . Retrieved 19 November 2021.
  2. 1 2 Compagno, L.J.V.; M. Dando & S. Fowler (2005). Sharks of the World. Princeton University Press. pp. 302–303. ISBN   978-0-691-12072-0.
  3. ↑ Lesueur, C.A. (May 1818). "Description of several new species of North American fishes (part 1)". Journal of the Academy of Natural Sciences of Philadelphia. 1 (2): 222–235.
  4. 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 Ebert, D.A. (2003). Sharks, Rays, and Chimaeras of California. University of California Press. pp. 160–162. ISBN   0-520-22265-2.
  5. 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 Compagno, L.J.V. (1984). Sharks of the World: An Annotated and Illustrated Catalogue of Shark Species Known to Date. Food and Agricultural Organization. pp. 489–491. ISBN   92-5-101384-5.
  6. ↑ Jordan, D.S.; Gilbert, C.H. (July 3, 1882). "Description of a new shark (Carcharias lamiella) from San Diego, California". Proceedings of the United States National Museum. 5 (269): 110–111. doi:10.5479/si.00963801.5-269.110.
  7. 1 2 3 Froese, Rainer; Pauly, Daniel (eds.) (2009). "Carcharhinus obscurus" in FishBase. May 2009 version.
  8. 1 2 Naylor, G.J.P. (1992). "The phylogenetic relationships among requiem and hammerhead sharks: inferring phylogeny when thousands of equally most parsimonious trees result". Cladistics. 8 (4): 295–318. doi:10.1111/j.1096-0031.1992.tb00073.x. hdl: 2027.42/73088 . PMID   34929961. S2CID   39697113.
  9. 1 2 Heim, B. and Bourdon, J. (April 20, 2009). Species from the Fossil Record: Carcharhinus obscurus. The Life and Times of Long Dead Sharks. Retrieved on April 29, 2010.
  10. ↑ Portell, R.W.; Hubbell, G.; Donovan, S.K.; Green, J.K.; Harper, D.A.T.; Pickerill, R. (2008). "Miocene sharks in the Kendeace and Grand Bay formations of Carriacou, The Grenadines, Lesser Antilles". Caribbean Journal of Science. 44 (3): 279–286. doi:10.18475/cjos.v44i3.a2. S2CID   87154947.
  11. ↑ Cook, T.D.; Murray, A.M.; Simons, E.L.; Attia, Y.S.; Chatrath, P. (February 8, 2010). "A Miocene selachian fauna from Moghra, Egypt". Historical Biology: An International Journal of Paleobiology. 22 (1–3): 78–87. doi:10.1080/08912960903249329. S2CID   128469722.
  12. ↑ Brown, R.C. (2008). Florida's Fossils: Guide to Location, Identification, and Enjoyment (third ed.). Pineapple Press. p. 100. ISBN   978-1-56164-409-4.
  13. ↑ Sanchez-Villagra, M.R.; Burnham, R.J.; Campbell, D.C.; Feldmann, R.M.; Gaffney, E.S.; Kay, R.F.; Lozsan, R.; Purdy R.; Thewissen, J.G.M. (September 2000). "A New Near-Shore Marine Fauna and Flora from the Early Neogene of Northwestern Venezuela". Journal of Paleontology. 74 (5): 957–968. doi:10.1666/0022-3360(2000)074<0957:ANNSMF>2.0.CO;2. S2CID   130609225.
  14. ↑ Cicimurri, D.J.; Knight, J.L. (2009). "Two Shark-bitten Whale Skeletons from Coastal Plain Deposits of South Carolina". Southeastern Naturalist. 8 (1): 71–82. doi:10.1656/058.008.0107. S2CID   86113934.
  15. ↑ Garrick, J.A.f. (1982). Sharks of the genus Carcharhinus. NOAA Technical Report, NMFS Circ. 445: 1–194.
  16. ↑ Compagno, L.J.V. (1988). Sharks of the Order Carcharhiniformes. Princeton University Press. pp. 319–320. ISBN   0-691-08453-X.
  17. ↑ Ovenden, J.R.; Kashiwagi, T.; Broderick, D.; Giles, J.; Salini, J. (2009). "The extent of population genetic subdivision differs among four co-distributed shark species in the Indo-Australian archipelago". BMC Evolutionary Biology. 9: 40. doi:10.1186/1471-2148-9-40. PMC   2660307 . PMID   19216767.
  18. ↑ Hoffmayer, E.R., Franks, J.S., Driggers, W.B. (III) and Grace, M.A. (March 26, 2009). "Movements and Habitat Preferences of Dusky (Carcharhinus obscurus) and Silky (Carcharhinus falciformis) Sharks in the Northern Gulf of Mexico: Preliminary Results." 2009 MTI Bird and Fish Tracking Conference Proceedings.
  19. 1 2 Van der Elst, R.; Borchert, P. (1993). A Guide to the Common Sea Fishes of Southern Africa (third ed.). Struik. p.  39. ISBN   1-86825-394-5.
  20. 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 Knickle, C. Biological Profiles: Dusky Shark. Florida Museum of Natural History Ichthyology Department. Retrieved on May 18, 2009.
  21. ↑ Castro, Jose I. (28 July 2011). The Sharks of North America. Oxford University Press, USA. p. 445. ISBN   978-0-19-539294-4.
  22. ↑ Cooper, Steve (May 2007). Fishing Techniques. Australian Fishing Network. p. 119. ISBN   978-1-86513-106-1.
  23. 1 2 3 Natanson, L.J.; Casey, J.G. & Kohler, N.E. (1995). "Age and growth estimates for the dusky shark, Carcharhinus obscurus, in the western North Atlantic Ocean" (PDF). Fishery Bulletin. 93 (1): 116–126.
  24. ↑ McEachran, J.D.; Fechhelm, J.D. (1998). Fishes of the Gulf of Mexico: Myxiniformes to Gasterosteiformes. University of Texas Press. p. 82. ISBN   0-292-75206-7.
  25. 1 2 3 4 5 Last, P.R.; Stevens, J.D. (2009). Sharks and Rays of Australia (second ed.). Harvard University Press. pp. 269–270. ISBN   978-0-674-03411-2.
  26. ↑ Huish, M.T.; Benedict, C. (1977). "Sonic tracking of dusky sharks in Cape Fear River, North Carolina". Journal of the Elisha Mitchell Scientific Society. 93 (1): 21–26.
  27. ↑ Schwartz, F.J. (Summer 2004). "Five species of sharksuckers (family Echeneidae) in North Carolina". Journal of the North Carolina Academy of Science. 120 (2): 44–49.
  28. ↑ Ruhnke, T.R.; Caira, J.N. (2009). "Two new species of Anthobothrium van Beneden, 1850 (Tetraphyllidea: Phyllobothriidae) from carcharhinid sharks, with a redescription of Anthobothrium laciniatum Linton, 1890". Systematic Parasitology. 72 (3): 217–227. doi:10.1007/s11230-008-9168-0. PMID   19189232. S2CID   1226830.
  29. ↑ Beveridge, I.; Campbell, R.A. (February 1993). "A revision of Dasyrhynchus Pintner (Cestoda, Trypanorhyncha), parasitic in elasmobranch and teleost fishes". Systematic Parasitology. 24 (2): 129–157. doi:10.1007/BF00009597. S2CID   6769785.
  30. ↑ Healy, C.J. (October 2003). "A revision of Platybothrium Linton, 1890 (Tetraphyllidea : Onchobothriidae), with a phylogenetic analysis and comments on host-parasite associations". Systematic Parasitology. 56 (2): 85–139. doi:10.1023/A:1026135528505. PMID   14574090. S2CID   944343.
  31. ↑ Linton, E. (1921). "Rhynchobothrium ingens spec. nov., a parasite of the dusky shark (Carcharhinus obscurus)". Journal of Parasitology. 8 (1): 22–32. doi:10.2307/3270938. JSTOR   3270938.
  32. ↑ Knoff, M.; De Sao Clemente, S.C.; Pinto, R.M.; Lanfredi, R.M.; Gomes, D.C. (April–June 2004). "New records and expanded descriptions of Tentacularia coryphaenae and Hepatoxylon trichiuri homeacanth trypanorhynchs (Eucestoda) from carcharhinid sharks from the State of Santa Catarina off-shore, Brazil". Revista Brasileira de Parasitologia Veterinaria. 13 (2): 73–80.
  33. ↑ Caira, J.N.; Jensen, K. (2009). "Erection of a new onchobothriid genus (Cestoda: Tetraphyllidea) and the description of five new species from whaler sharks (Carcharhinidae)". Journal of Parasitology. 95 (4): 924–940. doi:10.1645/GE-1963.1. hdl: 1808/13336 . PMID   20049998. S2CID   31178927.
  34. ↑ Bullard, S.A.; Dippenaar, S.M.; Hoffmayer, E.R.; Benz, G.W. (January 2004). "New locality records for Dermophthirius carcharhini (Monogenea : Microbothriidae) and Dermophthirius maccallumi and a list of hosts and localities for species of Dermophthirius". Comparative Parasitology. 71 (1): 78–80. doi:10.1654/4093. S2CID   85621860.
  35. ↑ MacCullum, G.A. (1917). "Some new forms of parasitic worms". Zoopathologica. 1 (2): 1–75.
  36. ↑ Yamauchi, T.; Ota, Y.; Nagasawa, K. (August 20, 2008). "Stibarobdella macrothela (Annelida, Hirudinida, Piscicolidae) from Elasmobranchs in Japanese Waters, with New Host Records". Biogeography. 10: 53–57.
  37. 1 2 Newbound, D.R.; Knott, B. (November 1999). "Parasitic copepods from pelagic sharks in Western Australia". Bulletin of Marine Science. 65 (3): 715–724.
  38. ↑ Jensen, C.; Schwartz, F.J. (December 1994). "Atlantic Ocean occurrences of the sea lamprey, Petromyzon marinus (Petromyzontiformes: Petromyzontidae), parasitizing sandbar, Carcharhinus plumbeus, and dusky, C. obscurus (Carcharhiniformes: Carcharhinidae), sharks off North and South Carolina". Brimleyana. 21: 69–76.
  39. ↑ Martin, R.A. A Place For Sharks. ReefQuest Centre for Shark Research. Retrieved on May 5, 2010.
  40. 1 2 3 Gelsleichter, J.; Musick, J.A.; Nichols, S. (February 1999). "Food habits of the smooth dogfish, Mustelus canis, dusky shark, Carcharhinus obscurus, Atlantic sharpnose shark, Rhizoprionodon terraenovae, and the sand tiger, Carcharias taurus, from the northwest Atlantic Ocean". Environmental Biology of Fishes. 54 (2): 205–217. doi:10.1023/A:1007527111292. S2CID   21850377.
  41. 1 2 3 4 Hussey, N.E.; Cocks, D.T.; Dudley, S.F.J.; McCarthy, I.D.; Wintner, S.P. (2009). "The condition conundrum: application of multiple condition indices to the dusky shark Carcharhinus obscurus". Marine Ecology Progress Series. 380: 199–212. Bibcode:2009MEPS..380..199H. doi: 10.3354/meps07918 .
  42. ↑ Martin, R.A. The Power of Shark Bites. ReefQuest Centre for Shark Research. Retrieved on August 31, 2009.
  43. ↑ Gubanov, E.P. (1988). "Morphological characteristics of the requiem shark, Carcharinus obscurus, of the Indian Ocean". Journal of Ichthyology. 28 (6): 68–73.
  44. ↑ "Carcharhinus obscurus (Shovelnose)". Animal Diversity Web .
  45. ↑ Simpfendorfer, C.A.; Goodreid, A.; McAuley, R.B. (2001). "Diet of three commercially important shark species from Western Australian waters". Marine and Freshwater Research. 52 (7): 975–985. doi:10.1071/MF01017.
  46. 1 2 Smale, M.J. (1991). "Occurrence and feeding of three shark species, Carcharhinus brachyurus, C. obscurus and Sphyrna zygaena, on the eastern Cape coast of South Africa". South African Journal of Marine Science. 11: 31–42. doi:10.2989/025776191784287808.
  47. ↑ Cockcroft, V.G.; Cliff, G.; Ross, G.J.B. (1989). "Shark predation on Indian Ocean bottlenose dolphins Tursiops truncatus off Natal, South Africa". South African Journal of Zoology. 24 (4): 305–310. doi: 10.1080/02541858.1989.11448168 . S2CID   86281315.
  48. ↑ Pratt, H.L. (Jr.) (1993). "The storage of spermatozoa in the oviducal glands of western North Atlantic sharks". Environmental Biology of Fishes. 38 (1–3): 139–149. doi:10.1007/BF00842910. S2CID   25172842.
  49. 1 2 3 Natanson, L.J.; Kohler, N.E. (1996). "A preliminary estimate of age and growth of the dusky shark Carcharhinus obscurus from the South-West Indian Ocean, with comparisons to the western North Atlantic population". South African Journal of Marine Science. 17: 217–224. doi:10.2989/025776196784158572.
  50. ↑ Dudley, S.J.F.; Cliff, G.; Zungu, M.P.; Smale, M.J. (2005). "Sharks caught in the protective gillnets off KwaZulu-Natal, South Africa. 10. The dusky shark Carcharhinus obscurus (LeSueur, 1818)". South African Journal of Marine Science. 27 (1): 107–127. doi:10.2989/18142320509504072. S2CID   85181390.
  51. 1 2 3 White, W.T. (2007). "Catch composition and reproductive biology of whaler sharks (Carcharhiniformes: Carcharhinidae) caught by fisheries in Indonesia". Journal of Fish Biology. 71 (5): 1512–1540. doi:10.1111/j.1095-8649.2007.01623.x.
  52. 1 2 Simpfendorfer, C.A.; McAuley, R.B.; Chidlow, J.; Unsworth, P. (2002). "Validated age and growth of the dusky shark, Carcharhinus obscurus, from Western Australian waters". Marine and Freshwater Research. 53 (2): 567–573. doi:10.1071/MF01131.
  53. ↑ McAuley, R.; Lenanton, R.; Chidlow, J.; Allison, R.; Heist, E. (2005). "Biology and stock assessment of the thickskin (sandbar) shark, Carcharhinus plumbeus, in Western Australia and further refinement of the dusky shark, Carcharhinus obscurus, stock assessment. Final FRDC Report - Project 2000/134" (PDF). Fisheries Western Australia Fisheries Research Report. 151: 1–132. Archived from the original (PDF) on 2017-01-28. Retrieved 2016-11-11.
  54. 1 2 3 4 5 6 Fowler, S.L.; Cavanagh, R.D.; Camhi, M.; Burgess, G.H.; Cailliet, G.M.; Fordham, S.V.; Simpfendorfer, C.A.; Musick, J.A. (2005). Sharks, Rays and Chimaeras: The Status of the Chondrichthyan Fishes. International Union for Conservation of Nature and Natural Resources. pp. 297–300. ISBN   2-8317-0700-5.
  55. ↑ Simpfendorfer, C.A. (Oct 2000). "Growth rates of juvenile dusky sharks, Carcharhinus obscurus (Lesueur, 1818), from southwestern Australia estimated from tag-recapture data". Fishery Bulletin. 98 (4): 811–822.
  56. ↑ ISAF Statistics on Attacking Species of Shark. International Shark Attack File, Florida Museum of Natural History, University of Florida. Retrieved on May 14, 2010.
  57. ↑ Species of Concern NOAA
  58. ↑ Species of Concern: Dusky Shark Archived 2010-08-03 at the Wayback Machine . (Jan. 6, 2009). NMFS Office of Protected Resources. Retrieved on May 18, 2009.
  59. ↑ Pank, M.; Stanhope, M.; Natanson, L.; Kohler, N. & Shivji, M. (May 2001). "Rapid and Simultaneous Identification of Body Parts from the Morphologically Similar Sharks Carcharhinus obscurus and Carcharhinus plumbeus (Carcharhinidae) Using Multiplex PCR". Marine Biotechnology. 3 (3): 231–240. doi:10.1007/s101260000071. PMID   14961360. S2CID   11342367.
  60. ↑ Duffy, Clinton A. J.; Francis, Malcolm; Dunn, M. R.; Finucci, Brit; Ford, Richard; Hitchmough, Rod; Rolfe, Jeremy (2016). Conservation status of New Zealand chondrichthyans (chimaeras, sharks and rays), 2016 (PDF). Wellington, New Zealand: Department of Conservation. p. 9. ISBN   9781988514628. OCLC   1042901090.
This page is based on this Wikipedia article
Text is available under the CC BY-SA 4.0 license; additional terms may apply.
Images, videos and audio are available under their respective licenses.