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East Papuan | |
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(obsolete) | |
Geographic distribution | Melanesia |
Linguistic classification | Proposed language family |
Subdivisions |
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Glottolog | None |
The East Papuan languages is a defunct proposal for a family of Papuan languages spoken on the islands to the east of New Guinea, including New Britain, New Ireland, Bougainville, Solomon Islands, and the Santa Cruz Islands. There is no evidence that these languages are related to each other, and the Santa Cruz languages are no longer recognized as Papuan.
All but two of the starred languages below (Yélî Dnye and Sulka) make a gender distinction in their pronouns. Several of the heavily Papuanized Austronesian languages of New Britain do as well. This suggests a pre-Austronesian language area in the region.
The East Papuan languages were proposed as a family by linguist Stephen Wurm (1975) and others. However, their work was preliminary, and there is little evidence that the East Papuan languages actually have a genetic relationship. For example, none of these fifteen languages marked with asterisks below share more than 2–3% of their basic vocabulary with any of the others. Dunn and colleagues (2005) tested the reliability of the proposed 2–3% cognates by randomizing the vocabulary lists and comparing them again. The nonsense comparisons produced the same 2–3% of "shared" vocabulary, demonstrating that the proposed cognates of the East Papuan languages, and even of proposed families within the East Papuan languages, are as likely to be due to chance as to any genealogical relationship. Thus in a conservative classification, many of the East Papuan languages would be considered language isolates.
Since the islands in question have been settled for at least 35 000 years, their considerable linguistic diversity is unsurprising. However, Malcolm Ross (2001; 2005) has presented evidence from comparing pronouns from nineteen of these languages that several of the lower-level branches of East Papuan may indeed be valid families. This is the classification adopted here. For Wurm's more inclusive classification, see the Glottolog page here.
Each of the first five entries in boldface is an independent language family, not known to be related to the others. Languages that are transparently related to each other are listed together on the same line. The first family is a more tentative proposal than the others and awaits confirmation.
Reconstructed pronoun sets for each of the families are given in the individual articles.
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* Dunn and colleagues found no demonstrable shared vocabulary between these fifteen languages.
** Ross considered these four languages in addition to the fifteen studied by Dunn and colleagues.
These three languages are not thought to be demonstrably related to each other or to any language in the world.
* Dunn and colleagues found no demonstrable shared vocabulary between these fifteen languages.
Wurm classified the three languages of the Santa Cruz and Reef Islands as an additional family within East Papuan. However, new data on these languages, along with advances in the reconstruction of Proto-Oceanic, has made it clear that they are in fact Austronesian:
Similarly, Wurm had classified the extinct Kazukuru language and its possible sister languages of New Georgia as a sixth branch of East Papuan. However, in a joint 2007 paper, Dunn and Ross argued that this was also Austronesian.
The tables below give lexical comparisons for the East Papuan languages (i.e., all Papuan languages spoken in New Britain and islands to the east), with languages listed roughly from west to east. All lexical items are from the Trans-New Guinea database [1] unless noted otherwise.
family | language | head | hair | ear | eye | nose | tooth | tongue | leg | blood | bone | skin | breast |
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
isolate | Ata [2] | sangalie | iei | usine'i | anaxu ilaanu (anaxu = 'mouth') | levexe | tava'a | sialuxu | xine | vasime'a | susu | ||
isolate | Anêm [3] | og | ki | gêt | ei | piŋi | lo | êlêŋ | ti 'foot' | esin | exe | palau | |
isolate | Kol | 'kel.a; kela keřne | 'komɒ; komɔʔ kalɛane | 'bula; bula kɛřlɛ | pelnɛl; 'penel | ta'li:; tali keřne | 'mire; mi̠řɛ kɛřnɛ | dal kɛřnɛ; raal | pe:re | 'be:la | 'ti:le | tomalu gomo; to'molu | 'tombo; to̠to la̠nɛ |
isolate | Sulka [4] | lpek | ngiris | ngaela | vorngap | ɨndiɨl | ptaik | ||||||
Baining | Mali (Arambum dialect) | uʷʌski | ǥʌsɛŋ | asdɛmgi | saǥoŋ | ulɩmgi | ǥɛŋ | ǥɔbɩnga | aǥař | abⁱʌska | atlɨp | ŋᶺndᶺŋ | ǥumukʰ |
Baining | Qaget | niŋaǥa; ʌ niŋʌg̶ʌ | aǥsiŋ; ʌg̶asiŋ | asⁿdəmgi; sᵊdᵊmki | ʌ rʌsʌkŋiʌm; saknaǥa | ǥəřɩmki; ʌ rʌg̶ʌrimgi | ařkiŋ; ařkingi | ǥalbiⁿka; og̶lbinga | ʌ laiŋyat; ɩlaⁱŋ | ʌg̶ʌřʌkʌ; ǥᵊřᵊka | lan; sləpki | ǥət·dinki; ʌrʌgʌtdəŋit | ǥomʌk; og̶əmək |
Baining | Ura | amʌ niŋʌǥi; auwʌski; ʌmʌ niŋʌǥɩ | aɣʌsɛŋ; kʌsiŋ; kʌsɩŋ | asdʌmgi; dʌsdəmgɩ; dʌsdəmgi | asauɣoŋ; ʌ̂ sʌǥon; ʌ sʌǥoŋ | awʌlyʌmgi; ʌ ǥulimgɩ; ʌ ǥulimgi | atkiŋgi; ʌ ǥʌřʌ; naeyɛŋ; næyɛŋ | aɣuebunga; duɛbingʌ | ʌgʌřʌ | a biaska; biʌskʌ | a Lləp; ʌ Lləp; o slʌpki | aslɩɣɩge; ʌ sliyɩgɛ; ʌ sliyigɛ | at gəmuk; atkʌmuk |
Taulil–Butam | Taulil | 'ulun | 'dɔmɔn | ul-tʌŋʌn | 'kɔlmʌřɩn | 'bulsun | 'lɩgim; lɩkɩn | ul-kɛmɛn | fʌn | dɛh | 'suhnʌ 'kunʌ | pʰʌlkⁿeⁱn; pʰʌlɩn | susun |
isolate | Kuot | bukom | kapuruma | kikinəm | irəma | akabunima; ŋof | laukima | məlobiem | oləbuan | muanəm | kumalip; neip; pəppək | sisima | |
North Bougainville | Rotokas [5] | uvu | orui | uvareoua | osireito | iruvaoto | reuri | arevuoto | kokotoa | revasiva | kerua | areiua; kakauoa; gago | rorooua |
South Bougainville | proto-South Bougainville [6] | *bore | *rome | *rutɔ | *keni | *meneŋ | *ereŋ | *kōna | |||||
Central Solomons | Mbilua (Ndovele dialect) | lezu | tou | taliŋa | vilu | ŋgame | taka | leño | kiti | ndara | piza | tupu | susu |
Central Solomons | Mbaniata (Lokuru dialect) | uɔ | zufu | ōŋgoto | mberɔ | emɔ | nāne | ānl | ɔe | vo | minu | zuɔna | susu |
Central Solomons | Lavukaleve | vatu | memea | hovul | lemi | sisi | neo | let | tau furime | ravu | sosokio | keut | ɔfu |
Central Solomons | Savosavo | batu | luta; sivuɰa | tagalu | nito | ɲoko | nale | lapi | ɰabu | tovolo | korakora | susu | |
isolate | Yélî Dnye [7] | ny:oo | gh:aa | ngweńe | ngwolo | ń:uu | nyóó | dêê | yi | wêê | dînê | too | ngmo |
family | language | louse | dog | pig | bird | egg | tree | sun | moon | water | fire | stone | path |
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
isolate | Ata | meni | a'aa | memee | ngiala | atolu | aiinu; ovu | aso | so'io | lexa | navu | lavo'o | vote'i |
isolate | Anem | seim | kaua | êknîn | nil | aŋ | ado | klîŋ | komu | kmî | pa | iuŋ | |
isolate | Kol | 'tare; ta̠řɛ | ku'ɒ:; kwa | bu | 'ule; ulɛ | 'kondola; kondo̠la | 'ti:nel; ti̠nɛl | 'karege; kařɛ̠qɛ | 'igu; i̠qu | 'gonu; qu̠nu | ku'oŋ; kuɔŋ | 'lela; lɛla | kɛrɛa; 'keria |
isolate | Sulka | ngaining | ho | yi | ngaelot, ngaelaut | ||||||||
Baining | Mali (Arambum dialect) | it | imga | ƀɛmgaʰ | i sʌmga | la | ŋumuŋ | ʷunɛŋga | 'aǥɔngi | řiŋgi | mudʌmbʌs | diǥa | iskaʰ |
Baining | Qaget | ᶩaⁱt; ʌ ɛɛtki | daŋka; ʌ dʌŋgʌ | ƀiləmgʌ; ƀlam | waⁱṱki; ʌ wʌitka | luaǥa; ʌ luʌg̶ʌ | mʌŋkʰa; munkʌ | ʌ niřag̶a; niřaǥa; nɩlaǥa | yaǥunki; ʌ yɔg̶ungi | ǥřapki; ʌ kʌinʌg̶i | altiŋki; ʌltiŋgi | ʌ dulkʌ; dulka | aiskʌ; aⁱska |
Baining | Ura | məaᶥt; məaⁱt; ɩr̰aɩt | imga; mɛmgʌ | ƀɩɛmgʌ; ƀiɛmgʌ; wemga | ɛɛ'sumgʌ; ɛɛsumgʌ; isʌmga | duřaiṱ; duřaᶥt̯; luaɣa | ʌ muŋgʌ; ŋʌmuga | ɣunʌga; wunʌgʌ | yaǥunǥɩ; yaɣungi; yʌǥungi | mʌřiŋgi; mʌřɩŋgɩ; rigi | mundʌbʌs; mundʌm | duɩɣa; mʌ duɩ; mʌ dui | iska; mʌiskʌ; mʌɩskʌ |
Taulil–Butam | Taulil | huᵗ | luf | bui | sɩgʌʔ | 'kʰɔřɔl | waⁱ | wʌsuʔ | 'kɛᵐbɛn | 'mʌlum | yʌf | fʌᵗ | ŋas |
isolate | Kuot | ineima | kapuna | amani; kobeŋ | dəkər; səgər | panbinim | uləŋ | burunəm; danuot | kit | adəs | alaŋ | ||
North Bougainville | Rotokas | iirui | kaakau; kevira | koie; koue | kokioto | takura | evaova | ravireo | kekira | uukoa | tuitui | aveke | raiva |
South Bougainville | proto-South Bougainville | *masika | *bɔrege | *koi | *rua | *doŋ | |||||||
Central Solomons | Mbilua (Ndovele dialect) | sipi; tiŋgau | siele | mbiaŋambiaŋa | tɔruru | kamboso | nĵu | uza | lando | keve | |||
Central Solomons | Mbaniata (Lokuru dialect) | lisa; vutu | sie | mānozo | āndena | īndi | fiɔ | hirɔ | hɛŋga | e | |||
Central Solomons | Lavukaleve | kea; lai | mitakeu | malaɣul | keruv | kua | lafi | lake | mbeko; veko | lake | |||
Central Solomons | Savosavo | dole | misu | kosu | kolei; si | kuɰe | piva | keda | kato | keva | |||
isolate | Yélî Dnye | y:emê wee | w:ââ | mbwêmê | ńmê; ńmo | w:uu | yi | kââdî | d:ââ | mbwaa; tolo | ndê; ndyuw:e | chêêpî | maa |
family | language | man | woman | name | to eat | one | two |
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
isolate | Ata | aliko | sema | uala | ’ie | vile | tamei |
isolate | Anem | axaŋ | dobalîŋ | eŋi | mîdê | niak | |
isolate | Kol | mo; tɒ: 'ti:niŋ | daiƀɛ; ra:l | 'ole | mo raŋ kal oŋ; tam·a | 'pusuɒ; titus | tɛřɛŋ; te'tepe |
isolate | Sulka | mhel 'person' | |||||
Baining | Mali (Arambum dialect) | umʌska | aƀopᵊkin | ŋʌrɩpkiʰ | katɨs | sɛgɨkʰ | udion |
Baining | Qaget | ǥʷatka; ʌ g̶wʌtkʌ | nanki; ʌ nʌngi | dʸiʌringi namgi; řɨnki | ka tɨs; kʌ tᵊs | ǥʷanaska; og̶unʌskʌ | ǥʷanasⁱam; og̶unʌsiʌm |
Baining | Ura | gamoɛɣa; gʌmuɛgʌ | ɛwəpkɩ; ɛwəpki; Ewopki | diŋyiřipki; diŋyɩrɩpkɩ; ŋʌr̰iþki | ɣat tʌs; ka ts; kʌ tᵊs | sɩgʌk; sʌgʌk; sigʌk | undiom; undɩom |
Taulil–Butam | Taulil | bʌᵏ; taⁱ | lʌᵘ | 'wɔᵘsɩn | ŋʌnɩʔ; nʌm | ikʌᵘ; kaᵘkʌʔ | 'daU; iⁿdʌᵘ |
isolate | Kuot | mikana; teima | makabun | bonim | o; parak | namurit | narain |
North Bougainville | Rotokas | rare pie | avuo | vaisia | aio | katai | erao |
South Bougainville | proto-South Bougainville | *nugaŋ | *mīŋ | *nai | |||
Central Solomons | Mbilua (Ndovele dialect) | mamba | reko | ŋi | vuato | mandeu | omuŋga |
Central Solomons | Mbaniata (Lokuru dialect) | finɔzɔ | ŋgohe | nini | azafe | āroŋo; thufi | ēri |
Central Solomons | Lavukaleve | ali | aira | laŋi | eu; eui; oune | dom; tetelom | lelal; lemal |
Central Solomons | Savosavo | tada | adaki | nini | l-ou; samu | ela; pade | edo |
isolate | Yélî Dnye | pi | kumbwada; pyââ | pi | ma | ngmidi | miyó |
Trans–New Guinea (TNG) is an extensive family of Papuan languages spoken on the island of New Guinea and neighboring islands, a region corresponding to the country Papua New Guinea as well as parts of Indonesia.
The Papuan languages are the non-Austronesian languages spoken on the western Pacific island of New Guinea, as well as neighbouring islands in Indonesia, Solomon Islands, and East Timor by around 4 million people. It is a strictly geographical grouping, and does not imply a genetic relationship.
The East Geelvink Bay or East Cenderawasih languages are a language family of a dozen Papuan languages along the eastern coast of Geelvink Bay in Indonesian Papua, which is also known as Sarera Bay or Cenderawasih.
The West Papuan languages are a proposed language family of about two dozen non-Austronesian languages of the Bird's Head Peninsula of far western New Guinea, the island of Halmahera and its vicinity, spoken by about 220,000 people in all. It is not established if they constitute a proper linguistic family or an areal network of genetically unrelated families.
The Lower Mamberamo languages are a recently proposed language family linking two languages spoken along the northern coast of Papua province, Indonesia, near the mouth of the Mamberamo River. They have various been classified either as heavily Papuanized Austronesian languages belonging to the SHWNG branch, or as Papuan languages that had undergone heavy Austronesian influence. Glottolog 3.4 classifies Lower Mamberamo as Austronesian, while Donohue classifies it as Papuan. Kamholz (2014) classifies Warembori and Yoke each as coordinate primary subgroups of the South Halmahera–West New Guinea languages.
The Piawi languages are a small family of Papuan languages spoken in the Schraeder Range of the Madang Highlands of Papua New Guinea that had been part of Stephen Wurm's Trans–New Guinea proposal. They are now connected to the Arafundi and Madang languages.
The Eastern Trans-Fly languages are a small independent family of Papuan languages spoken in the Oriomo Plateau to the west of the Fly River in New Guinea.
The Lakes Plain languages are a family of Papuan languages, spoken in the Lakes Plain of Indonesian New Guinea. They are notable for being heavily tonal and for their lack of nasal consonants.
The East Bird's Head – Sentani languages form a family of Papuan languages proposed by Malcolm Ross which combines the East Bird's Head and Sentani families along with the Burmeso language isolate. Sentani had been a branch of Stephen Wurm's proposal for Trans–New Guinea. It has lexical similarities with the Asmat–Kamoro languages, but Ross does not believe these demonstrate a genealogical relationship.
Sulka is a language isolate of New Britain, Papua New Guinea. In 1991, there were 2,500 speakers in eastern Pomio District, East New Britain Province. Villages include Guma in East Pomio Rural LLG. With such a low population of speakers, this language is considered to be endangered. Sulka speakers had originally migrated to East New Britain from New Ireland.
The North Bougainville or West Bougainville languages are a small language family spoken on the island of Bougainville in Papua New Guinea. They were classified as East Papuan languages by Stephen Wurm, but this does not now seem tenable, and was abandoned in Ethnologue (2009).
Yele – West New Britain is a tentative language family proposal by Malcolm Ross that unites three languages: Anêm and Ata (Wasi) of western New Britain, and more dubiously Yélî Dnye (Yele) of Rossel Island. These were classified as East Papuan languages by Stephen Wurm, but this does not now seem tenable. While Anêm and Ata do appear to be related, Yele may turn out to be an Austronesian language.
The Central Solomon languages are the four Papuan languages spoken in the state of Solomon Islands.
The South Bougainville or East Bougainville languages are a small language family spoken on the island of Bougainville in Papua New Guinea. They were classified as East Papuan languages by Stephen Wurm, but this does not now seem tenable, and was abandoned in Ethnologue (2009).
Kazukuru is an extinct language that was once spoken in New Georgia, Solomon Islands. The Dororo and Guliguli languages were transcriptional variants, dialects, or closely related. The speakers of Kazukuru gradually merged with the Roviana people from the sixteenth century onward and adopted Roviana as their language. Kazukuru was last recorded in the early twentieth century when its speakers were in the last stages of language shift. Today, Kazukuru is the name of a clan in the Roviana people group.
The Alor–Pantar languages are a family of clearly related Papuan languages spoken on islands of the Alor archipelago near Timor in southern Indonesia. They may be most closely related to the Papuan languages of eastern Timor, but this is not yet clear. A more distant relationship with the Trans–New Guinea languages of the Bomberai peninsula of Western New Guinea has been proposed based on pronominal evidence, but though often cited has never been firmly established.
Fasu, also known as Namo Me, is one of the Kutubuan languages of New Guinea.
The Mombum languages, also known as the Komolom or Muli Strait languages, are a pair of Trans–New Guinea languages, Mombum (Komolom) and Koneraw, spoken on Komolom Island just off Yos Sudarso Island, and on the southern coast of Yos Sudarso Island, respectively, on the southern coast of New Guinea. Komolom Island is at the southern end of the Muli Strait.
The West Trans–New Guinea languages are a suggested linguistic linkage of Papuan languages, not well established as a group, proposed by Malcolm Ross in his 2005 classification of the Trans–New Guinea languages. Ross suspects they are an old dialect continuum, because they share numerous features that have not been traced to a single ancestor using comparative historical linguistics. The internal divisions of the languages are also unclear. William A. Foley considers the TNG identity of the Irian Highlands languages at least to be established.
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