Erysimum

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Erysimum
Erysimum-scoparium.jpg
Erysimum scoparium
Scientific classification OOjs UI icon edit-ltr.svg
Kingdom: Plantae
Clade: Tracheophytes
Clade: Angiosperms
Clade: Eudicots
Clade: Rosids
Order: Brassicales
Family: Brassicaceae
Genus: Erysimum
L.
Species

Over 180, see text

Synonyms
  • CheiranthusL.
and others

Erysimum, or wallflower, is a genus of flowering plants in the cabbage family, Brassicaceae. It includes more than 150 species, both popular garden plants and many wild forms. [1] [2] [3] [4] [5] [6] Erysimum is characterised by star-shaped and/or two-sided) trichomes growing from the stem, with yellow, red, pink or orange flowers and multiseeded seed pods.

Morphology

Wallflowers are annuals, herbaceous perennials or sub-shrubs. The perennial species are short-lived and in cultivation treated as biennials. Most species have stems erect, with a covering of bifid hairs, usually 25 ± 53cm × 2–3mm in size. The leaves are narrow and fixed. The lower leaves are broad and round with backwardly directed lobes, 50–80mm × 0.5–3mm. Stem leaves are linear, entire, growing whitish with 2-fid hairs; 21–43mm × 1.5–2mm. Flower clusters grow at intervals on short equal stalks along the stem, with bright yellow to red or pink bilateral flowers. Flowering occurs during spring and summer. One species, Erysimum semperflorens , native to Morocco and Algeria, has white flowers. The flowering part of the stem ranges from 4 to 7mm. There are four pouch-shaped sepals, light green, 5–7mm × 1.5–2mm.

Etymology

The genus name Erysimum is derived from the Ancient Greek erysimon ( ἐρύσιμον , Sisymbrium officinale [7] or Sisymbrium polyceratium   [ d ], [8] the hedgenettle), itself from the word eryo ( ἐρύω ) meaning to drag [9] or eryso, a form of rhyomai ( ῥύομαι ),[ citation needed ] meaning "to ward off" or "to heal" in reference to its medicinal properties. [10]

Distribution

Wallflowers are native to temperate Eurasia, North Africa and Macaronesia, and North America south to Costa Rica. Many wallflowers are endemic to small areas, such as:

Cultivation

Most wallflower garden cultivars (e.g. Erysimum 'Chelsea Jacket') are derived from E. cheiri (often placed in Cheiranthus), from southern Europe. They are often attacked by fungal and bacterial disease, so they are best grown as biennials and discarded after flowering. They are also susceptible to clubroot, a disease of Brassicaceae. Growth is best in dry soils with very good drainage, and they are often grown successfully in loose wall mortar, hence the vernacular name. There is a wide range of flower color in the warm spectrum, including white, yellow, orange, red, pink, maroon, purple and brown. The flowers, appearing in spring, usually have a strong fragrance. Wallflowers are often associated in spring bedding schemes with tulips and forget-me-nots. [11]

The cultivar 'Bowles's Mauve' [12] has gained the Royal Horticultural Society's Award of Garden Merit. [13] It can become a bushy evergreen perennial in milder locations. It is strongly scented and attractive to bees.

Ecology

Erysimum is found in a range of habitats across the northern hemisphere, and has developed diverse morphology and growth habits (herbaceous annual or perennial, and woody perennial). Different Erysimum species are used as food plants by the larvae of some Lepidoptera (butterflies and moths) species including the garden carpet (Xanthorhoe fluctuata). In addition, some species of weevils, like Ceutorhynchus chlorophanus , live inside the fruits feeding on the developing seeds. Many species of beetles, bugs and grasshoppers eat the leaves and stalks. Some mammalian herbivores, for example mule deer ( Odocoileus hemionus ) in North America, argali ( Ovis ammon ) in Mongolia, red deer ( Cervus elaphus ) in Central Europe, or Spanish ibex ( Capra pyrenaica ) in the Iberian Peninsula, feed on wallflower flowering and fruiting stalks. Erysimum crepidifolium (pale wallflower) is toxic to some generalist vertebrate herbivores. [14] [15]

Most wallflowers are pollinator-generalists, their flowers being visited by many different species of bees, bee flies, hoverflies, butterflies, beetles, and ants. However, there are some specialist species. For example, Erysimum scoparium is pollinated almost exclusively by Anthophora alluadii.

Defensive compounds

Like most Brassicaceae, species in the genus Erysimum produce glucosinolates as defensive compounds. [16] [17] However, unlike almost all other genera in the Brassicaceae, Erysimum also accumulates cardiac glycosides, another class of phytochemicals with an ecological importance in insect defense. [18] [19] Cardiac glycosides specifically function to prevent insect herbivory [20] and/or oviposition [21] by blocking ion channel function in muscle cells. [22] These chemicals are toxic enough to deter generalist, [23] and even some specialist [24] insect herbivores. Cardiac glycoside production is widespread in Erysimum, with at least 48 species in the genus containing these compounds. [19] [25] Accumulation of cardiac glycosides in Erysimum crepidifolium , but not other tested species, is induced by treatment with jasmonic acid and methyl jasmonate, [26] [25] endogenous elicitors of chemical defenses in many plant species. [27] Molecular phylogenetic analysis indicates that Erysimum diversification from other Brassicaceae species that do not produce cardiac glycosides began in the Pliocene (2.33–5.2 million years ago), [28] [1] suggesting relatively recent evolution of cardiac glycosides as a defensive trait in this genus.

Escape from herbivory

The evolution of novel chemical defenses in plants, such as cardenolides in the genus Erysimum, is predicted to allow escape from herbivory by specialist herbivores and expansion into new ecological niches. [29] The crucifer-feeding specialist Pieries rapae (white cabbage butterfly) is deterred from feeding and oviposition by cardenolides in Erysimum cheiranthoides. [30] [31] [32] [33] [34] Similarly, Anthocharis cardamines (orange tip butterfly), which oviposits on almost all crucifer species, avoids E. cheiranthoides. [35] Erysimum asperum (western wallflower) is resistant to feeding and oviposition of Pieris napi macdunnoughii (synonym Pieris marginalis , margined white butterfly). [36] [37] Two crucifer-feeding beetles, Phaedon sp. and Phyllotreta sp., were deterred from feeding by cardenolides that were applied to their preferred food plants. [38] [39] Consistent with the hypothesis of enhanced speciation after escape from herbivory, phylogenetic studies involving 128 Erysimum species indicate diversification in Eurasia between 0.5 and 2 million years ago, and in North America between 0.7 and 1.65 million years ago.) [1] This evolutionarily rapid expansion of the Erysimum genus has resulted in several hundred known species distributed throughout the northern hemisphere. [1] [2] [3] [4] [5] [6]

Ethnobotanical uses of Erysimum

Erysimum species have a long history of use in traditional medicine. In Naturalis Historia by Pliny the Elder (c. 77), Erysimum is classified as a medicinal rather than a food plant. Erysimum cheiri is described as a medicinal herb in De Materia Medica by Pedanius Dioscorides (c. 70), which was the predominant European medical pharmacopeia for more than 1,500 years. Other medieval descriptions of medicinal herbs and their uses, including the Dispensatorium des Cordus by Valerius Cordus (1542), Bocks Kräuterbuch by Hieronymus Bock (1577), and Tabernaemontanus' Neuw Kreuterbuch by Jacobus Theodorus Tabernaemontanus (1588), also discuss applications of E. cheiri . In traditional Chinese medicine, Erysimum cheiranthoides has been used to treat heart disease and other ailments. [40] Although medical uses of Erysimum became uncommon in Europe after the Middle Ages, [41] Erysimum diffusum, as well as purified erysimin and erysimoside, have been applied more recently as Ukrainian ethnobotanical treatments. [42]

Selected species

Related Research Articles

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Brassicaceae</span> Family of flowering plants

Brassicaceae or Cruciferae is a medium-sized and economically important family of flowering plants commonly known as the mustards, the crucifers, or the cabbage family. Most are herbaceous plants, while some are shrubs. The leaves are simple, lack stipules, and appear alternately on stems or in rosettes. The inflorescences are terminal and lack bracts. The flowers have four free sepals, four free alternating petals, two shorter free stamens and four longer free stamens. The fruit has seeds in rows, divided by a thin wall.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Cardiac glycoside</span> Class of organic compounds

Cardiac glycosides are a class of organic compounds that increase the output force of the heart and decrease its rate of contractions by inhibiting the cellular sodium-potassium ATPase pump. Their beneficial medical uses are as treatments for congestive heart failure and cardiac arrhythmias; however, their relative toxicity prevents them from being widely used. Most commonly found as secondary metabolites in several plants such as foxglove plants, these compounds nevertheless have a diverse range of biochemical effects regarding cardiac cell function and have also been suggested for use in cancer treatment.

<i>Asclepias tuberosa</i> Species of flowering plant

Asclepias tuberosa, commonly known as butterfly weed, is a species of milkweed native to eastern and southwestern North America. It is commonly known as butterfly weed because of the butterflies that are attracted to the plant by its color and its copious production of nectar.

<i>Asclepias</i> Genus of flowering plants

Asclepias is a genus of herbaceous, perennial, flowering plants known as milkweeds, named for their latex, a milky substance containing cardiac glycosides termed cardenolides, exuded where cells are damaged. Most species are toxic to humans and many other species, primarily due to the presence of cardenolides. However, as with many such plants, some species feed upon them or from them. The most notable of them is the monarch butterfly, which uses and requires certain milkweeds as host plants for their larvae.

<i>Pieris rapae</i> Species of butterfly

Pieris rapae is a small- to medium-sized butterfly species of the whites-and-yellows family Pieridae. It is known in Europe as the small white, in North America as the cabbage white or cabbage butterfly, on several continents as the small cabbage white, and in New Zealand as the white butterfly. The butterfly is recognizable by its white color with small black dots on its wings, and it can be distinguished from P. brassicae by its larger size and the black band at the tip of its forewings.

<i>Pieris brassicae</i> Species of butterfly

Pieris brassicae, the large white, also called cabbage butterfly, cabbage white, cabbage moth (erroneously), or in India the large cabbage white, is a butterfly in the family Pieridae. It is a close relative of the small white, Pieris rapae.

<i>Pieris oleracea</i> Species of butterfly

Pieris oleracea, or more commonly known as the mustard white, is a butterfly in the family Pieridae native to a large part of Canada and the northeastern United States. The nearly all-white butterfly is often found in wooded areas or open plains. There are two seasonal forms, which make it distinct from other similar species. Because of climate change, populations are moving further north.

<i>Junonia coenia</i> Species of insect (butterfly)

Junonia coenia, known as the common buckeye or buckeye, is a butterfly in the family Nymphalidae. Its range covers much of North America and some of Central America, including most of the eastern half of the US, the lower to middle Midwest, the Southwest, southern Canada, and Mexico. Its habitat is open areas with low vegetation and some bare ground. Its original ancestry has been traced to Africa, which then experiences divergence in Asia. The species Junonia grisea, the gray buckeye, is found west of the Rocky Mountains and was formerly a subspecies of Junonia coenia.

<i>Iberis</i> Genus of flowering plants

Iberis, commonly called candytuft, is a genus of flowering plants belonging to the family Brassicaceae. It comprises annuals, evergreen perennials and subshrubs native to the Old World. The name "candytuft" is not related to candy, but derives from Candia, the former name of Iraklion on the Island of Crete.

<i>Barbarea vulgaris</i> Species of flowering plant

Barbarea vulgaris, also called wintercress, or alternatively winter rocket, rocketcress, yellow rocketcress, yellow rocket, wound rocket, herb barbara, creases, or creasy greens, is a biennial herb of the genus Barbarea, belonging to the family Brassicaceae.

<i>Asclepias curassavica</i> Species of flowering plant

Asclepias curassavica, commonly known as tropical milkweed, is a flowering plant species of the milkweed genus, Asclepias. It is native to the American tropics and has a pantropical distribution as an introduced species. Other common names include bloodflower or blood flower, cotton bush, hierba de la cucaracha, Mexican butterfly weed, redhead, scarlet milkweed, and wild ipecacuanha.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Cardenolide</span> Chemical compound

A cardenolide is a type of steroid. Many plants contain derivatives, collectively known as cardenolides, including many in the form of cardenolide glycosides (cardenolides that contain structural groups derived from sugars). Cardenolide glycosides are often toxic; specifically, they are heart-arresting. Cardenolides are toxic to animals through inhibition of the enzyme Na+/K+‐ATPase, which is responsible for maintaining the sodium and potassium ion gradients across the cell membranes.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Bufadienolide</span> Chemical compound

Bufadienolide is a chemical compound with steroid structure. Its derivatives are collectively known as bufadienolides, including many in the form of bufadienolide glycosides. These are a type of cardiac glycoside, the other being the cardenolide glycosides. Both bufadienolides and their glycosides are toxic; specifically, they can cause an atrioventricular block, bradycardia, ventricular tachycardia, and possibly lethal cardiac arrest.

<i>Erysimum cheiranthoides</i> Species of flowering plant

Erysimum cheiranthoides, the treacle-mustard,wormseed wallflower, or wormseed mustard is a species of Erysimum native to most of central and northern Europe and northern and central Asia. Like other Erysimum species, E. cheiranthoides accumulates two major classes of defensive chemicals: glucosinolates and cardiac glycosides.

<i>Diplotaxis tenuifolia</i> Species of flowering plant

Diplotaxis tenuifolia is a species of flowering plant in the mustard family known by the common name perennial wall-rocket. It is native to Europe and western Asia, where it grows on disturbed ground and roadsides, and it can now be found throughout much of the temperate world where it has naturalized. In recent years it has increasingly been cultivated to produce salad leaves, which are marketed as wild rocket in Britain or arugula in the US. It is easily confused with garden rocket, which has similar uses.

<i>Erysimum cheiri</i> Species of flowering plant

Erysimum cheiri, syn. Cheiranthus cheiri, the wallflower, is a species of flowering plant in the family Brassicaceae (Cruciferae), native to Greece, but widespread as an introduced species elsewhere. It is also treated as a hybrid under the name Erysimum × cheiri. It is widely cultivated as a garden plant.

<i>Ceutorhynchus rapae</i> Species of beetle

Ceutorhynchus rapae, or the cabbage curculio, is a species of minute seed weevil in the beetle family Curculionidae. It is found in North America and Europe. It feeds on Erysimum crepidifolium, Erysimum cheiranthoides, and Capsella bursa-pastoris.

<i>Erysimum collinum</i> Species of plant

Erysimum collinum is a plant species in the family Brassicaceae. It is a member of the genus Erysimum, which includes between 150 and 350 species in the Northern Hemisphere.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Georg Jander</span> American plant biologist

Georg Jander is an American plant biologist at the Boyce Thompson Institute in Ithaca, New York. He has an adjunct appointment in the Plant Biology Section of the School of Integrative Plant Sciences at Cornell University. Jander is known for his molecular research identifying genes for biochemical compounds of ecological and agricultural importance, particularly those plant traits involved in resistance to insect pests.

<i>Erysimum crepidifolium</i> Species of plant

Erysimum crepidifolium, the pale wallflower, is a plant species in the crucifer family, Brassicaceae. It is a member of the genus Erysimum, which includes between 150 and 350 species in the Northern Hemisphere.

References

  1. 1 2 3 4 Moazzeni, Hamid; Zarre, Shahin; Pfeil, Bernard E.; Bertrand, Yann J. K.; German, Dmitry A.; Al-Shebaz, Ihsan A.; Mummenhoff, Klaus; Oxelman, Bengt (2014). "Phylogenetic perspectives on diversification and character evolution in the species-rich genus Erysimum (Erysimeae; Brassicaceae) based on a densely sampled ITS approach". Botanical Journal of the Linnean Society. 175 (4): 497–522. doi:10.1111/boj.12184. S2CID   82972738.
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  19. 1 2 Makarevich, FI; Zhernoklev, KV; Slyusarskaya, TB (1994). "Cardenolide-containing plants of the family Cruciferae". Chemistry of Natural Compounds. 30 (3): 275–289. doi:10.1007/BF00629957. S2CID   13763922.
  20. ↑ Dussourd, DE; Hoyle, AM (2000). "Poisoned plusiines: toxicity of milkweed latex and cardenolides to some generalist caterpillars". Chemical Ecology. 10.
  21. ↑ Renwick, J. A. A.; Radke, C. D.; Sachdev-Gupta, K. (1989). "Chemical Constituents of Erysimum cheiranthoides Deterring Oviposition by the Cabbage Butterfly, Pieris rapae". Journal of Chemical Ecology. 15 (8): 2161–9. doi:10.1007/BF01014106. PMID   24272377. S2CID   20866270.
  22. ↑ Paula, S; Tabet, MR; Ball, WJ (2005). "Interactions between cardiac glycosides and sodium ⁄ potassium-ATPase: three-dimensional structure)activity relationship models for ligand binding to the E2-Pi form of the enzyme versus activity inhibition". Biochemistry. 44 (2): 498–510. doi:10.1021/bi048680w. PMID   15641774.
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  25. 1 2 Züst, Tobias; Strickler, Susan R.; Powell, Adrian F.; Mabry, Makenzie E.; An, Hong; Mirzaei, Mahdieh; York, Thomas; Holland, Cynthia K.; Kumar, Pavan (2019-09-08). "Rapid and independent evolution of ancestral and novel defenses in a genus of toxic plants (Brassicaceae)". bioRxiv. doi: 10.1101/761569 .
  26. ↑ Munkert, Jennifer; Ernst, Mona; Müller-Uri, Frieder; Kreis, Wolfgang (2014). "Identification and stress-induced expression of three 3β-hydroxysteroid dehydrogenases from Erysimum crepidifolium Rchb. and their putative role in cardenolide biosynthesis". Phytochemistry. 100: 26–33. Bibcode:2014PChem.100...26M. doi:10.1016/j.phytochem.2014.01.006. ISSN   0031-9422. PMID   24512841.
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  28. ↑ Huang, Chien-Hsun; Sun, Renran; Hu, Yi; Zeng, Liping; Zhang, Ning; Cai, Liming; Zhang, Qiang; Koch, Marcus A.; Al-Shehbaz, Ihsan; Edger, Patrick P.; Pires, J. Chris; Tan, Dun-Yan; Zhong, Yang; Ma, Hong (2015). "Resolution of Brassicaceae Phylogeny Using Nuclear Genes Uncovers Nested Radiations and Supports Convergent Morphological Evolution". Molecular Biology and Evolution. 33 (2): 394–412. doi:10.1093/molbev/msv226. PMC   4866547 . PMID   26516094.
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  30. ↑ Feeny, Paul (1977). "Defensive Ecology of the Cruciferae". Annals of the Missouri Botanical Garden. 64 (2): 221–234. doi:10.2307/2395334. JSTOR   2395334.
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  32. ↑ Renwick, J. A. A.; Radke, Celia D. (1985). "Constituents of host- and non-host plants deterring oviposition by the cabbage butterfly, Pieris rapae". Entomologia Experimentalis et Applicata. 39 (1): 21–26. doi:10.1111/j.1570-7458.1985.tb03538.x. ISSN   0013-8703. S2CID   86713452.
  33. ↑ Dimock, M. B.; Renwick, J. A. A.; Radke, C. D.; Sachdev-gupta, K. (1991). "Chemical constituents of an unacceptable crucifer,Erysimum cheiranthoides, deter feeding byPieris rapae". Journal of Chemical Ecology. 17 (3): 525–533. doi:10.1007/bf00982123. ISSN   0098-0331. PMID   24258803. S2CID   32639023.
  34. ↑ Sachdev-Gupta, K.; Radke, Cd.; Renwick, J. A. A.; Dimock, M. B. (1993). "Cardenolides from Erysimum cheiranthoides: Feeding deterrents toPieris rapae larvae". Journal of Chemical Ecology. 19 (7): 1355–1369. doi:10.1007/bf00984881. ISSN   0098-0331. PMID   24249167. S2CID   258932.
  35. ↑ Wiklund, Christer; Åhrberg, Carl; Ahrberg, Carl (1978). "Host Plants, Nectar Source Plants, and Habitat Selection of Males and Females of Anthocharis cardamines (Lepidoptera)". Oikos. 31 (2): 169. doi:10.2307/3543560. ISSN   0030-1299. JSTOR   3543560.
  36. ↑ Chew, Frances S. (1975). "Coevolution of pierid butterflies and their cruciferous foodplants". Oecologia. 20 (2): 117–127. Bibcode:1975Oecol..20..117C. doi:10.1007/bf00369024. ISSN   0029-8549. PMID   28308818. S2CID   29074343.
  37. ↑ Chew, Frances S. (1977). "Coevolution of Pierid Butterflies and Their Cruciferous Foodplants. II. The Distribution of Eggs on Potential Foodplants". Evolution. 31 (3): 568–579. doi:10.2307/2407522. ISSN   0014-3820. JSTOR   2407522. PMID   28563490.
  38. ↑ NIELSEN, JENS KVIST (1978). "Host Plant Discrimination within Cruciferae: Feeding Responses of Four Leaf Beetles (Coleoptera: Chrysomelidae) to Glucosinolates, Cucurbitacins and Cardenolides". Entomologia Experimentalis et Applicata. 24 (1): 41–54. doi:10.1111/j.1570-7458.1978.tb02755.x. ISSN   0013-8703. S2CID   84602063.
  39. ↑ NIELSEN, J. K. (1978). "Host Plant Selection of Monophagous and Oligophagous Flea Beetles Feeding on Crucifers". Entomologia Experimentalis et Applicata. 24 (3): 562–569. doi:10.1111/j.1570-7458.1978.tb02817.x. ISSN   0013-8703. S2CID   85648914.
  40. ↑ Zhu, YC (1989). Plantae Medicinales Chinae Boreali-Orientalis. Harbin: Heilongjiang Science and Technology Publishing House.
  41. ↑ Jaretzky, R.; Wilcke, M. (1932). "Die herzwirksamen Glykoside von Cheiranthus Cheiri und verwandten Arten". Archiv der Pharmazie. 270 (2): 81–94. doi:10.1002/ardp.19322700202. ISSN   0365-6233. S2CID   93704423.
  42. ↑ Makarevich, I. F.; Zhernoklev, K. V.; Slyusarskaya, T. V.; Yarmolenko, G. N. (May 1994). "Cardenolide-containing plants of the family Cruciferae". Chemistry of Natural Compounds. 30 (3): 275–289. doi:10.1007/bf00629957. ISSN   0009-3130. S2CID   13763922.
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