European labour law

Last updated

European labour law regulates basic transnational standards of employment and partnership at work in the European Union and countries adhering to the European Convention on Human Rights. In setting regulatory floors to competition for job-creating investment within the Union, and in promoting a degree of employee consultation in the workplace, European labour law is viewed as a pillar of the "European social model". Despite wide variation in employment protection and related welfare provision between member states, [1] a contrast is typically drawn with conditions in the United States. [2] [3] [4]

Contents

The European Union, under the Treaty on the Functioning of the European Union, article 153(1) is able to use the ordinary legislation procedure on a list of labour law fields. This notably excludes wage regulation and collective bargaining. [5] Four main fields of EU regulation of labour rights include (1) individual labour rights, (2) anti-discrimination regulations, (3) rights to information, consultation, and participation at work, and (4) rights to job security. In virtually all cases, the EU follows the principle that member states can always create rights more beneficial to workers.

The fundamental principle of labour law is that employees' unequal bargaining power justifies substitution of rules in property and contract with positive social rights so that people may earn a living to fully participate in a democratic society. [6] The EU's competences generally follow principles codified in the Community Charter of the Fundamental Social Rights of Workers 1989, [7] introduced in the "social chapter" of the Treaty of Maastricht. [8]

History

While free movement of workers was central to the first European Economic Community agreement, the development of European labour law has been a gradual process. Originally, the Ohlin Report of 1956 recommended that labour standards did not need to be harmonised, although a general principle of anti-discrimination between men and women was included in the early Treaties. Increasingly, the absence of labour rights was seen as inadequate given the capacity for a "race to the bottom" in international trade if corporations can shift jobs and production to countries with low wages.

The Treaty on the Functioning of the European Union (deriving from the Treaty of Lisbon) lists in article 2(1) the European Union's competence in the field of labour law. What is conspicuously not included is unjust dismissal of workers, and according to article 153(5) "pay, the right of association, the right to strike or the right to impose lock-outs". As it says, "the Union shall support and complement the activities of the Member States in the following fields:"

:(a) improvement in particular of the working environment to protect workers' health and safety;

(b) working conditions;
(c) social security and social protection of workers;
(d) protection of workers where their employment contract is terminated;
(e) the information and consultation of workers;
(f) representation and collective defence of the interests of workers and employers, including co-determination, subject to paragraph 5;
(g) conditions of employment for third-country nationals legally residing in Union territory;
(h) the integration of persons excluded from the labour market, without prejudice to Article 166;
(i) equality between men and women with regard to labour market opportunities and treatment at work;
(j) the combating of social exclusion;
(k) the modernisation of social protection systems without prejudice to point (c).

The objectives draw, according to TFEU article 151, inspiration from a number of other treaties and sources, which in turn draw inspiration from the International Labour Organization and the Versailles Treaty.

Labour and human rights

A first group of Directives create a range of individual rights in EU employment relationships. The objective of transnational regulation is to progressively raise the minimum floor in line with economic development.

Employment contracts

The Employment Information Directive 2019 requires that every employee (however defined by member state law) has the right to a written statement of their employment contract. [9]

The consistent jurisprudence of the European Court of Justice is that an employee is generally to be defined according to the fact that he or she is invariably the weaker party in an employment contract, and works under the direction of another.

The European Court of Justice expressly rules that there are generally no exemptions from the term "employee" for executives under European Law, which would allow member states to restrict employee protection on non-executive-employees.

Free movement

Articles 45–48 state that workers have the right to move freely and work anywhere in the EU, without discrimination on grounds of nationality, subject to exceptions to preserve public policy, security and health.

There is also an old Directive concerning posted workers which has recently become highly contentious given decisions by the ECJ in The Rosella and Laval.

Working time and child care

The European Social Charter 1961 art 2(1) requires "the working week to be progressively reduced" with "increase of productivity". The Working Time Directive 2003 requires at least four paid weeks of holiday a year. With two-day weekends, most people in the EU work two-thirds of the year or less. Antipaxos vrika beach bgiu.jpg
The European Social Charter 1961 art 2(1) requires "the working week to be progressively reduced" with "increase of productivity". The Working Time Directive 2003 requires at least four paid weeks of holiday a year. With two-day weekends, most people in the EU work two-thirds of the year or less.

Reflecting basic standards in the Universal Declaration of Human Rights and ILO Conventions, [13] the Working Time Directive 2003 requires a minimum of 4 weeks (totalling 28 days) paid holidays each year, [14] a minimum of 20-minute paid rest breaks for 6-hour work shifts, limits on night work or time spent on dangerous work, [15] and a maximum 48-hour working week unless a worker individually consents. [16]

The Parental Leave Directive 2019 creates a bare minimum of four months of parental leave (to be used by parents/legal guardians and to be taken before the child reaches a specified age, up to the age of eight, as determined by each Member State) of which al least two months are non-transferable and are paid at a level that is determined by the Member State; ten days of paternity leave paid at least at the level of sick pay; five days carers’ leave; and the Pregnant Workers Directive 1992 creates a right for mothers to a minimum of 14 weeks' paid leave to care for children. [17]

Health and safety

The Safety and Health at Work Directive 1989 requires basic requirements to prevent and insure against workplace risks, with employee consultation and participation, [18] and this is complemented by specialised Directives, ranging from work equipment to dangerous industries. [19] In almost all cases, all member states go significantly beyond this minimum.

Pensions

While there is no wage regulation, the Institutions for Occupational Retirement Provision Directive 2003 requires that pension benefits are protected through a national insurance fund, that information is provided to beneficiaries, and minimum standards of governance are observed. [20] These include protecting the "pension promise" of employers in the event of business trouble, and require minimum standards of funding. Most member states go far beyond these requirements, particularly by requiring a vote for employees in who manages their money. [21]

Since the global financial crisis beginning in 2007, the EU acted to create a network of transnational financial regulators in an attempt to prevent the undercutting of standards by countries competing on low regulation. One of these is the European Insurance and Occupational Pensions Authority, which replaced a committee known as the "Committee of European Insurance and Occupational Pensions Supervisors".

The tax law for cross-border worker (UE and extra-UE) is regulated by the Directive n. 957/2018. [23] [24] [25] [26]

Social security

Public procurement

Collective representation

The EU is formally not enabled to legislate on collective bargaining, although the EU, with all member states, is bound by the jurisprudence of the European Court of Human Rights on freedom of association. [27]

Participatory governance

A majority of EU countries have legislation, including the Oxford University Act 1854, which protect employees' right to vote for a corporation's management. This is reflected in the Employee Involvement Directive 2001 for European Companies. Oxford University, Radcliffe Camera, a Reading room of Bodleian library.jpg
A majority of EU countries have legislation, including the Oxford University Act 1854, which protect employees' right to vote for a corporation's management. This is reflected in the Employee Involvement Directive 2001 for European Companies.

If a company transforms from a member state corporation to incorporate under the European Company Regulation 2001, employees are entitled to no less favourable representation than under the member state's existing board participation laws. This is practically important as a majority of EU member states require employee representation on company boards.

Information and consultation

The Information and Consultation Directive 2002 requires that workplaces with over 20 or 50 staff have the right to set up elected work councils with a range of binding rights, the European Works Council Directive 2009 enables work councils transnationally, and the Employee Involvement Directive 2001 requires representation of workers on company boards in some European Companies. In total, the requirement to inform and consult the workforce (negotiate with a view to agreement) is found in four directives.

Collective bargaining

Theoretically, only the European Court of Human Rights should have competence to decide issues related to collective bargaining and industrial action, as the European Union treaties do not confer competence on the EU to legislate on such issues. The ECHR's scope extends to collective bargaining given the right to freedom of association under article 11. In Wilson and Palmer v United Kingdom [28] the Court held that any detriment for membership of a trade union was incompatible with article 11, and in Demir and Baykara v Turkey [29] the Court held "the right to bargain collectively with the employer has, in principle, become one of the essential elements" of article 11. [30]

This approach, which includes affirmation of the fundamental right to strike in all democratic member states, [31] has been seen as lying in tension with some of the Court of Justice's previous case law, notably ITWF v Viking Line ABP [32] and Laval Un Partneri Ltd v Svenska Byggnadsarbetareforbundet . [33] These decisions suggested the fundamental right of workers to take collective action was subordinate to business freedom to establish and provide services.

Equality

Beyond the general principle of equality in EU law, six main Directives protect basic equality rights in EU law. The rules are not consolidated, and on gender pay potentially limited in not enabling a hypothetical comparator, or comparators in outsourced business. Equality rules do not yet apply to child care rights, which only give women substantial time off, and consequently hinder equality in men and women caring for children after birth, and pursuing their careers.

General principle

The principle of equality regardless of status is a fundamental value in all European member states, and constitutes a core principle that pervades the objectives of every institution. Equality was affirmed by the Court of Justice in Kücükdeveci v Swedex GmbH & Co KG [34] to be a general principle of EU law.

This is reflected in a number of TFEU provisions.

Protected grounds

The Race Equality Directive 2000, Equality Framework Directive 2000 and Equal Treatment Directive 2006 prohibit discrimination based on sexual orientation, disability, religion or belief, age, race and gender. As well as "direct discrimination", there is a prohibition on "indirect discrimination" where employers apply a neutral rule to everybody, but this has a disproportionate impact on the protected group.

Atypical workers

The Part-time Work Directive 1997, Fixed-term Work Directive 1999 and Temporary Agency Work Directive 2008 generally require that people who do not have ordinary full-time, permanent contracts are treated no less favourably than their colleagues. However, the scope of the protected worker is left to member state law, and the TAWD 2008 only applies to "basic working conditions" (mostly pay, working hours and participation rights) and enabled member states to have a qualifying period.

Job security

Minimum job security rights are provided by three Directives. There are further norms in the Treaties which aspire to create a high level of employment in the EU.

Business restructuring

The Collective Redundancies Directive 1998 specifies that minimum periods of notice and consultation occur if more than a set number of jobs in a workplace are at risk. The Transfers of Undertakings Directive 2001 require that staff retain all contractual rights, unless there is an independent economic, technical or organisational reason, if their workplace is sold from one company to another. Last, the Insolvency Protection Directive 2008 requires that employees' wage claims are protected in the event that their employer falls insolvent. This last Directive gave rise to Francovich v Italy , where the Court of Justice affirmed that member states which fail to implement the minimum standards in EU Directives are liable to pay compensation to employees who should have rights under them. [35]

Unemployment

US and EU unemployment rates, 1993-2009. Unemployment rate United states - Europe 1993-2009.svg
US and EU unemployment rates, 1993–2009.

Today, the EU is required under TFEU article 147 to contribute to a "high level of employment by encouraging cooperation between Member States". [36] This has not resulted in legislation, which usually requires taxation and fiscal stimulus for significant change, while the European Central Bank's monetary policy has been acutely controversial during the Eurozone crisis. The EU undertakes ad hoc initiatives to combat unemployment, but only indirectly through better regulation. It does not have any specific fiscal stimulus programme, outside funds used for general regional development.

Gig economy legislation

In December 2021, the European Commission published new draft legislation to ensure gig workers get a minimum wage, access to sick pay, holidays and general employment rights. [37] The announcement sent stock prices of gig economy brands lower, including Deliveroo, Just Eat Takeaway, Delivery Hero. [38]

See also

Notes

  1. ↑ Alber, Jens; Gilbert, Neil (2010). United in Diversity?: Comparing Social Models in Europe and America. Oxford: Oxford Scholarship Onlin. ISBN   9780195376630 . Retrieved 11 September 2020.
  2. ↑ McDowell, Manfred (1995). "NAFTA and the EC Social Dimension". Labor Studies Journal. 20 (1). Retrieved 11 September 2020.
  3. ↑ Sapir, A. (2005): Globalisation and the Reform of European Social Models, Bruegel, Bruselas. Accessible por internet en
  4. ↑ Boeri, T. (2002): Let Social Policy Models Compete and Europe Will Win, conference in the John F. Kennedy School of Government, Harvard University, 11–12 April 2002.
  5. ↑ TFEU art 153(1)
  6. ↑ See further O Kahn-Freund, 'Hugo Sinzheimer' in Labour Law and Politics in the Weimar Republic (1981) 103, 'The technique of bourgeois society and its law is to cover social facts and factors of social existence with abstractions: property, contract, legal person. All these abstractions contain within them socially opposed and contradictory phenomena: property used for production and property used for consumption, agreements between equal parties and agreements between unequal parties, capitalist and worker. Through abstraction it is possible to extend legal rules, which are appropriate to the social phenomenon for which they were originally developed, to other social phenomena, thereby concealing the exercise of social power behind a veil of law'. A Supiot, Beyond Employment: Changes in Work and the Future of Labour Law in Europe (2001). S Deakin and F Wilkinson, The Law of the Labour Market (2005) 90.
  7. ↑ See the Charter's text Archived 16 November 2013 at the Wayback Machine
  8. ↑ Initially the UK had opted-out, because of opposition by the Conservative Party, but was acceded to when the Labour Party won the 1997 general election in the Treaty of Amsterdam.
  9. ↑ Employment Information Directive 2019/1152, formerly Employment Information Directive 1991, 91/553/EEC
  10. ↑ European Social Charter 1961 art 2(1)
  11. ↑ WTD 2003 art 7, referring to "four weeks" and arts 5 and 6 referring to the concept of "weekly" as meaning a "seven-day period". The choice to phrase time off as "weeks" was interpreted by the UK Supreme Court to mean employees have the right to take weeks off at a time, rather than separate days in the UK context: Russell v Transocean International Resources Ltd [2011] UKSC 57, [19]
  12. ↑ See further JM Keynes, Economic Possibilities of our Grandchildren (1930) arguing a 15-hour week was achievable by 2000 if gains in productivity increases were equitably shared.
  13. ↑ UDHR art 24, Holidays with Pay Convention 1970 (no 132) and see also the European Social Charter 1961 art 2(1).
  14. ↑ WTD 2003 art 7. In the UK, the implementing Working Time Regulations 1998 state "5.6 weeks" is needed, although this is also 28 days, as a "week" was originally taken to refer to a 5-day working week.
  15. ↑ WTD 2003 arts 2–5 and 8–13
  16. ↑ WTD 2003 arts 6 and 17 and Pfeiffer v Deutsches Kreuz, Kreisverband Waldshut eV (2005) C-397/01
  17. ↑ Boyle v Equal Opportunities Commission (1998) C-411/96 requires pay be at least the same level as statutory sick pay.
  18. ↑ Safety and Health at Work Directive 1989 (89/391/EC) art 11
  19. ↑ See also the Health and Safety of Atypical Workers Directive 1991 extends these protections to people who do not have typical, full-time or permanent employment contracts.
  20. ↑ e.g. Institutions for Occupational Retirement Provision Directive 2003 arts 11–12, 17–18
  21. ↑ e.g. Pensions Act 2004 ss 241–243
  22. ↑ 80/987/EEC
  23. ↑ "Directive 2018/957 amending Directive 96/71/EC concerning the posting of workers in the framework of the provision of services". EUR-Lex . 28 June 2018. Archived from the original on 18 September 2020. Retrieved 18 September 2020– via Eumonitor.eu.
  24. ↑ "Impact posting of workers Directive 2018-957". Archived from the original on 18 September 2020.
  25. ↑ "EU Posted Workers Directive: impact on employers posting workers to Belgium". 29 July 2020. Archived from the original on 18 September 2020.
  26. ↑ "The EU approved the Directive n. 2018-957 on the posting of workers". 5 September 2018. Archived from the original on 18 September 2020.
  27. ↑ ECHR art 11. This codified traditions in democratic member states before World War II. See for example Crofter Hand Woven Harris Tweed Co Ltd v Veitch [1941] UKHL 2
  28. ↑ [2002] ECHR 552
  29. ↑ [2008] ECHR 1345
  30. ↑ Demir and Baykara v Turkey [2008] ECHR 1345
  31. ↑ See further Enerji Yapi-Yol Sen v Turkey (2009) Application No 68959/01
  32. ↑ (2007) C-438/05
  33. ↑ (2007) C-319/05, and C-319/06
  34. ↑ (2010) C-555/07
  35. ↑ (1991) C-6/90
  36. ↑ TFEU art 147
  37. ↑ "Gig economy workers to get employee rights under EU proposals". TheGuardian.com . 9 December 2021.
  38. ↑ "Gig economy stocks plunge amid EU regulatory crackdown fears". Reuters. 6 December 2021.

Related Research Articles

Labour laws, labour code or employment laws are those that mediate the relationship between workers, employing entities, trade unions, and the government. Collective labour law relates to the tripartite relationship between employee, employer, and union.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">European Union law</span> System of rules within the European Union

European Union law is a system of rules operating within the member states of the European Union (EU). Since the founding of the European Coal and Steel Community following World War II, the EU has developed the aim to "promote peace, its values and the well-being of its peoples". The EU has political institutions, social and economic policies, which transcend nation states for the purpose of cooperation and human development. According to its Court of Justice, the EU represents "a new legal order of international law".

<span class="mw-page-title-main">United Kingdom labour law</span> Rights of workers, unions, and duties of employers in the UK

United Kingdom labour law regulates the relations between workers, employers and trade unions. People at work in the UK have a minimum set of employment rights, from Acts of Parliament, Regulations, common law and equity. This includes the right to a minimum wage of £10.42 for over-23-year-olds from April 2023 under the National Minimum Wage Act 1998. The Working Time Regulations 1998 give the right to 28 days paid holidays, breaks from work, and attempt to limit long working hours. The Employment Rights Act 1996 gives the right to leave for child care, and the right to request flexible working patterns. The Pensions Act 2008 gives the right to be automatically enrolled in a basic occupational pension, whose funds must be protected according to the Pensions Act 1995. Workers must be able to vote for trustees of their occupational pensions under the Pensions Act 2004. In some enterprises, such as universities or NHS foundation trusts, staff can vote for the directors of the organisation. In enterprises with over 50 staff, workers must be negotiated with, with a view to agreement on any contract or workplace organisation changes, major economic developments or difficulties. The UK Corporate Governance Code recommends worker involvement in voting for a listed company's board of directors but does not yet follow international standards in protecting the right to vote in law. Collective bargaining, between democratically organised trade unions and the enterprise's management, has been seen as a "single channel" for individual workers to counteract the employer's abuse of power when it dismisses staff or fix the terms of work. Collective agreements are ultimately backed up by a trade union's right to strike: a fundamental requirement of democratic society in international law. Under the Trade Union and Labour Relations (Consolidation) Act 1992 strike action is protected when it is "in contemplation or furtherance of a trade dispute".

<span class="mw-page-title-main">European Trade Union Confederation</span> European union federation

The European Trade Union Confederation (ETUC) is the major trade union organisation representing workers at the European level. In its role as a European social partner, the ETUC works both in a consulting role with the European Commission and negotiates agreements and work programmes with European employers. It coordinates the national and sectoral policies of its affiliates on social and economic matters, particularly in the framework of the EU institutional processes, including European economic governance and the EU Semester.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">European single market</span> Single market of the European Union and participating non-EU countries

The European single market, also known as the European internal market or the European common market, is the single market comprising mainly the 27 member states of the European Union (EU). With certain exceptions, it also comprises Iceland, Liechtenstein, Norway, and Switzerland. The single market seeks to guarantee the free movement of goods, capital, services, and people, known collectively as the "four freedoms". This is achieved through common rules and standards that all participating states are legally committed to follow.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Equal Pay Act 1970</span> United Kingdom legislation

The Equal Pay Act 1970 was an act of the Parliament of the United Kingdom that prohibited any less favourable treatment between men and women in terms of pay and conditions of employment. The act was proposed by the then Labour government, and was based on the Equal Pay Act of 1963 of the United States. It has now been mostly superseded by part 5, chapter 3 of the Equality Act 2010.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Working Time Directive 2003</span> Directive in European Union law

The Working Time Directive2003/88/EC is a European Union law Directive and a key part of European labour law. It gives EU workers the right to:

The freedom of movement for workers is a policy chapter of the acquis communautaire of the European Union. The free movement of workers means that nationals of any member state of the European Union can take up an employment in another member state on the same conditions as the nationals of that particular member state. In particular, no discrimination based on nationality is allowed. It is part of the free movement of persons and one of the four economic freedoms: free movement of goods, services, labour and capital. Article 45 TFEU states that:

  1. Freedom of movement for workers shall be secured within the Community.
  2. Such freedom of movement shall entail the abolition of any discrimination based on nationality between workers of the Member States as regards employment, remuneration and other conditions of work and employment.
  3. It shall entail the right, subject to limitations justified on grounds of public policy, public security or public health:
  4. The provisions of this article shall not apply to employment in the public service.

United Kingdom employment equality law is a body of law which legislates against prejudice-based actions in the workplace. As an integral part of UK labour law it is unlawful to discriminate against a person because they have one of the "protected characteristics", which are, age, disability, gender reassignment, marriage and civil partnership, race, religion or belief, sex, pregnancy and maternity, and sexual orientation. The primary legislation is the Equality Act 2010, which outlaws discrimination in access to education, public services, private goods and services, transport or premises in addition to employment. This follows three major European Union Directives, and is supplement by other Acts like the Protection from Harassment Act 1997. Furthermore, discrimination on the grounds of work status, as a part-time worker, fixed term employee, agency worker or union membership is banned as a result of a combination of statutory instruments and the Trade Union and Labour Relations (Consolidation) Act 1992, again following European law. Disputes are typically resolved in the workplace in consultation with an employer or trade union, or with advice from a solicitor, ACAS or the Citizens Advice Bureau a claim may be brought in an employment tribunal. The Equality Act 2006 established the Equality and Human Rights Commission, a body designed to strengthen enforcement of equality laws.

The Posted Workers Directive96/71/EC is an EU directive concerned with the free movement of workers within the European Union. It makes an exception to the Convention on the Law Applicable to Contractual Obligations 1980, which ordinarily requires that workers are protected by the law of the member state in which they work.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Working Time Regulations 1998</span> United Kingdom legislation

The Working Time Regulations 1998 is a statutory instrument in UK labour law which implements the EU Working Time Directive 2003. It does not extend to Northern Ireland.

<i>International Transport Workers Federation v Viking Line ABP</i>

International Transport Workers Federation v Viking Line ABP (2007) C-438/05 is an EU law case of the European Court of Justice, in which it was held that there is a positive right to strike, but the exercise of that right could infringe a business's freedom of establishment under the Treaty on the Functioning of the European Union article 49. Often called The Rosella case or the Viking case, it is relevant to all labour law within the European Union. The decision has been criticised for the Court's inarticulate line of reasoning, and its disregard of fundamental human rights.

<i>Laval un Partneri Ltd v Svenska Byggnadsarbetareförbundet</i>

Laval un Partneri Ltd v Svenska Byggnadsarbetareförbundet (2007) C-341/05 is an EU law case, relevant to all labour law within the European Union, which held that there is a positive right to strike. However, it also held that the right to strike must be exercised proportionately and in particular this right was subject to justification where it could infringe the right to freedom to provide services under the Treaty on the Functioning of the European Union article 56.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Workplace participation in the United Kingdom</span>

Workplace participation in the United Kingdom refers to the structures that people at work have to participate in the way their organisation is managed. UK labour and company law generally leaves this up to the management of the company, appointed by shareholders and banks, to determine, and in contrast to most European jurisdictions requires only a minimum participation practices. Workers have the right to,

International labour law is the body of rules spanning public and private international law which concern the rights and duties of employees, employers, trade unions and governments in regulating Work and the workplace. The International Labour Organization and the World Trade Organization have been the main international bodies involved in reforming labour markets. The International Monetary Fund and the World Bank have indirectly driven changes in labour policy by demanding structural adjustment conditions for receiving loans or grants. Issues regarding Conflict of laws arise, determined by national courts, when people work in more than one country, and supra-national bodies, particularly in the law of the European Union, have a growing body of rules regarding labour rights.

The Temporary Agency Work Directive2008/104/EC is an EU Directive agreed in November 2008 which seeks to guarantee those working through employment agencies equal pay and conditions with employees in the same business who do the same work. It is the third piece of legislation in the European Union's employment law package to protect atypical working. Though it was proposed in 2002, the British, German, Danish and Irish governments blocked its enactment until 2008.

The Fixed-term Work Directive99/70/EC is one of three EU Directives that regulate atypical work. Alongside the Part-time Work Directive and the Agency Work Directive its aim is to ensure that people who have not contracted for permanent jobs are nevertheless guaranteed a minimum level of equal treatment compared to full-time permanent staff. Fixed-term work contracts purport to be of limited duration, but staff with such contracts can claim that they are permanent after a maximum of four years. Member states in the European union can, and usually do, go beyond the minimum.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">European company law</span>

European company law is the part of European Union law which concerns the formation, operation and insolvency of companies in the European Union. The EU creates minimum standards for companies throughout the EU, and has its own corporate forms. All member states continue to operate separate companies acts, which are amended from time to time to comply with EU Directives and Regulations. There is, however, also the option of businesses to incorporate as a Societas Europaea (SE), which allows a company to operate across all member states.

Baumbast and R v Secretary of State for the Home Department (2002) C-413/99 is an EU law case, concerning the free movement of citizens in the European Union.

<i>FNV Kunsten Informatie en Media v Staat der Nederlanden</i>

FNV Kunsten Informatie en Media v Staat der Nederlanden (2014) C-413/13 is a European labour law case, concerning European competition law.

References

This page is based on this Wikipedia article
Text is available under the CC BY-SA 4.0 license; additional terms may apply.
Images, videos and audio are available under their respective licenses.