Fin

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Fins typically function as foils that provide lift or thrust, or provide the ability to steer or stabilize motion in water or air. Trailing edge NACA 0012.svg
Fins typically function as foils that provide lift or thrust, or provide the ability to steer or stabilize motion in water or air.

A fin is a thin component or appendage attached to a larger body or structure. Fins typically function as foils that produce lift or thrust, or provide the ability to steer or stabilize motion while traveling in water, air, or other fluids. Fins are also used to increase surface areas for heat transfer purposes, or simply as ornamentation. [1] [2]

Contents

Fins first evolved on fish as a means of locomotion. Fish fins are used to generate thrust and control the subsequent motion. Fish and other aquatic animals, such as cetaceans, actively propel and steer themselves with pectoral and tail fins. As they swim, they use other fins, such as dorsal and anal fins, to achieve stability and refine their maneuvering. [3] [4]

The fins on the tails of cetaceans, ichthyosaurs, metriorhynchids, mosasaurs and plesiosaurs are called flukes.

Thrust generation

Foil shaped fins generate thrust when moved, the lift of the fin sets water or air in motion and pushes the fin in the opposite direction. Aquatic animals get significant thrust by moving fins back and forth in water. Often the tail fin is used, but some aquatic animals generate thrust from pectoral fins. [3] Fins can also generate thrust if they are rotated in air or water. Turbines and propellers (and sometimes fans and pumps) use a number of rotating fins, also called foils, wings, arms or blades. Propellers use the fins to translate torquing force to lateral thrust, thus propelling an aircraft or ship. [5] Turbines work in reverse, using the lift of the blades to generate torque and power from moving gases or water. [6]

Moving fins can provide thrust
Barb gonio 080525 9610 ltn Cf.jpg
Fish get thrust moving vertical tail fins from side to side.
Southern right whale caudal fin-2 no sky.JPG
Cetaceans get thrust moving horizontal tail fins up and down.
Dasyatis thetidis.jpg
Stingrays get thrust from large pectoral fins.
Stern of Bro Elisabeth 2.jpg
Ship propeller
MAKS-2007-turbine.JPG
Compressor fins (blades)
Cavitation Propeller Damage.JPG
Cavitation damage is evident on this propeller.
Thunnus obesus (Bigeye tuna) diagram cropped.GIF
Drawing by Dr Tony Ayling
Finlets may influence the way a vortex develops around the tail fin.

Cavitation can be a problem with high power applications, resulting in damage to propellers or turbines, as well as noise and loss of power. [7] Cavitation occurs when negative pressure causes bubbles (cavities) to form in a liquid, which then promptly and violently collapse. It can cause significant damage and wear. [7] Cavitation damage can also occur to the tail fins of powerful swimming marine animals, such as dolphins and tuna. Cavitation is more likely to occur near the surface of the ocean, where the ambient water pressure is relatively low. Even if they have the power to swim faster, dolphins may have to restrict their speed because collapsing cavitation bubbles on their tail are too painful. [8] Cavitation also slows tuna, but for a different reason. Unlike dolphins, these fish do not feel the bubbles, because they have bony fins without nerve endings. Nevertheless, they cannot swim faster because the cavitation bubbles create a vapor film around their fins that limits their speed. Lesions have been found on tuna that are consistent with cavitation damage. [8]

Scombrid fishes (tuna, mackerel and bonito) are particularly high-performance swimmers. Along the margin at the rear of their bodies is a line of small rayless, non-retractable fins, known as finlets. There has been much speculation about the function of these finlets. Research done in 2000 and 2001 by Nauen and Lauder indicated that "the finlets have a hydrodynamic effect on local flow during steady swimming" and that "the most posterior finlet is oriented to redirect flow into the developing tail vortex, which may increase thrust produced by the tail of swimming mackerel". [9] [10] [11]

Fish use multiple fins, so it is possible that a given fin can have a hydrodynamic interaction with another fin. In particular, the fins immediately upstream of the caudal (tail) fin may be proximate fins that can directly affect the flow dynamics at the caudal fin. In 2011, researchers using volumetric imaging techniques were able to generate "the first instantaneous three-dimensional views of wake structures as they are produced by freely swimming fishes". They found that "continuous tail beats resulted in the formation of a linked chain of vortex rings" and that "the dorsal and anal fin wakes are rapidly entrained by the caudal fin wake, approximately within the timeframe of a subsequent tail beat". [12]

Motion control

Fins are used by aquatic animals, such as this orca, to generate thrust and control the subsequent motion. Orca porpoising.jpg
Fins are used by aquatic animals, such as this orca, to generate thrust and control the subsequent motion.

Once motion has been established, the motion itself can be controlled with the use of other fins. [3] [15] [16] Boats control direction (yaw) with fin-like rudders, and roll with stabilizer and keel fins. [15] Airplanes achieve similar results with small specialised fins that change the shape of their wings and tail fins. [16]

Specialised fins are used to control motion
Rotations.png
Fish, boats and airplanes need control of three degrees of rotational freedom. [17] [18] [19]
White shark (cropped).jpg
The dorsal fin of a white shark contain dermal fibers that work "like riggings that stabilize a ship's mast", and stiffen dynamically as the shark swims faster to control roll and yaw. [20]
Caudal fin of a great white shark Great white shark, Carcharodon carcharias.jpg
Caudal fin of a great white shark
Yacht keel steer.svg
A rudder corrects yaw
Yacht keel.svg
A fin keel limits roll and sideways drift
Stabilizer1.JPG
Ship stabilising fins reduce roll
Aileron roll.gif
Ailerons control roll
Aileron pitch.gif
Elevators control pitch
Aileron yaw.gif
The rudder controls yaw

Stabilising fins are used as fletching on arrows and some darts, [21] and at the rear of some bombs, missiles, rockets and self-propelled torpedoes. [22] [23] These are typically planar and shaped like small wings, although grid fins are sometimes used. [24] Static fins have also been used for one satellite, GOCE.

Static tail fins are used as stabilizers
Fletching-Arrow-9.jpeg
Fletching on an arrow
122 mm raketti Hameenlinna 2.JPG
Asymmetric stabilizing fins impart spin to this Soviet artillery rocket
USS Essex (LHD-2) launches RIM-7 Sea Sparrow on 6 February 2004 (040206-N-2970T-002).jpg
Conventional "planar" fins on a RIM-7 Sea Sparrow missile

Temperature regulation

Engineering fins are also used as heat transfer fins to regulate temperature in heat sinks or fin radiators. [25] [26]

Fins can regulate temperature
ZiD-Sova-175.jpg
Motorbikes use fins to cool the engine. [27]
Oil Heater 5293.jpg
Oil heaters convect with fins
Istiophorus platypterus.jpg
Sailfish raise their dorsal fin to cool down or to herd schooling fish. [28] [29]

Ornamentation and other uses

In biology, fins can have an adaptive significance as sexual ornaments. During courtship, the female cichlid, Pelvicachromis taeniatus , displays a large and visually arresting purple pelvic fin. "The researchers found that males clearly preferred females with a larger pelvic fin and that pelvic fins grew in a more disproportionate way than other fins on female fish." [30] [31]

Ornamentation
Pelvicachromis taeniatus.jpg
During courtship, the female cichlid, Pelvicachromis taeniatus , displays her visually arresting purple pelvic fin.
Spinosaurus 2020 reconstruction.jpg
Spinosaurus may have used its dorsal fin (sail) as a courtship display. [32] : 28 
Cadillac1001.jpg
Car tail fins in the 1950s were largely decorative. [33]

Reshaping human feet with swim fins, rather like the tail fin of a fish, add thrust and efficiency to the kicks of a swimmer or underwater diver [34] [35] Surfboard fins provide surfers with means to maneuver and control their boards. Contemporary surfboards often have a centre fin and two cambered side fins. [36]

The bodies of reef fishes are often shaped differently from open water fishes. Open water fishes are usually built for speed, streamlined like torpedoes to minimise friction as they move through the water. Reef fish operate in the relatively confined spaces and complex underwater landscapes of coral reefs. For this manoeuvrability is more important than straight line speed, so coral reef fish have developed bodies which optimize their ability to dart and change direction. They outwit predators by dodging into fissures in the reef or playing hide and seek around coral heads. [37]

The pectoral and pelvic fins of many reef fish, such as butterflyfish, damselfish and angelfish, have evolved so they can act as brakes and allow complex maneuvers. [38] Many reef fish, such as butterflyfish, damselfish and angelfish, have evolved bodies which are deep and laterally compressed like a pancake, and will fit into fissures in rocks. Their pelvic and pectoral fins are designed differently, so they act together with the flattened body to optimise maneuverability. [37] Some fishes, such as puffer fish, filefish and trunkfish, rely on pectoral fins for swimming and hardly use tail fins at all. [38]

Other uses
Jetfins reglables.jpg
Swim fins add thrust to the kicks of a human swimmer.
Rescue surfboard, Killahoey Strand - geograph.org.uk - 901180.jpg
Surfboard fins allow surfers to maneuver their boards.
Shark finning icon.jpg
In some Asian countries shark fins are a culinary delicacy. [39]
Fernando Alonso won 2012 Malaysian GP.jpg
In recent years, car fins have evolved into highly functional spoilers and wings. [40]
Holacanthus ciliaris 1.jpg
Many reef fish have pectoral and pelvic fins optimised for flattened bodies. [37]
Antennarius striatus.jpg
Frog fish use their pectoral and pelvic fins to walk along the ocean bottom. [41]
Sailfin flyingfish.jpg
Flying fish use enlarged pectoral fins to glide above the surface of the water. [42]

Evolution

Aquatic animals typically use fins for locomotion (1) pectoral fins (paired), (2) pelvic fins (paired), (3) dorsal fin, (4) adipose fin, (5) anal fin, and (6) caudal (tail) fin. Lampanyctodes hectoris (fins).png
Aquatic animals typically use fins for locomotion
(1) pectoral fins (paired), (2) pelvic fins (paired), (3) dorsal fin, (4) adipose fin, (5) anal fin, and (6) caudal (tail) fin.

Aristotle recognised the distinction between analogous and homologous structures, and made the following prophetic comparison: "Birds in a way resemble fishes. For birds have their wings in the upper part of their bodies and fishes have two fins in the front part of their bodies. Birds have feet on their underpart and most fishes have a second pair of fins in their under-part and near their front fins."

– Aristotle, De incessu animalium [43]

There is an old theory, proposed by anatomist Carl Gegenbaur, which has been often disregarded in science textbooks, "that fins and (later) limbs evolved from the gills of an extinct vertebrate". Gaps in the fossil record had not allowed a definitive conclusion. In 2009, researchers from the University of Chicago found evidence that the "genetic architecture of gills, fins and limbs is the same", and that "the skeleton of any appendage off the body of an animal is probably patterned by the developmental genetic program that we have traced back to formation of gills in sharks". [44] [45] [46] Recent studies support the idea that gill arches and paired fins are serially homologous and thus that fins may have evolved from gill tissues. [47]

Fish are the ancestors of all mammals, reptiles, birds and amphibians. [48] In particular, terrestrial tetrapods (four-legged animals) evolved from fish and made their first forays onto land 400 million years ago. They used paired pectoral and pelvic fins for locomotion. The pectoral fins developed into forelegs (arms in the case of humans) and the pelvic fins developed into hind legs. [49] Much of the genetic machinery that builds a walking limb in a tetrapod is already present in the swimming fin of a fish. [50] [51]

Comparison between A) the swimming fin of a lobe-finned fish and B) the walking leg of a tetrapod. Bones considered to correspond with each other have the same color. Crossopterygii fins tetrapod legs.svg
Comparison between A) the swimming fin of a lobe-finned fish and B) the walking leg of a tetrapod. Bones considered to correspond with each other have the same color.
In a parallel but independent evolution, the ancient reptile Ichthyosaurus communis developed fins (or flippers) very similar to fish (or dolphins). Ichthyosaurus BW.jpg
In a parallel but independent evolution, the ancient reptile Ichthyosaurus communis developed fins (or flippers) very similar to fish (or dolphins).

In 2011, researchers at Monash University in Australia used primitive but still living lungfish "to trace the evolution of pelvic fin muscles to find out how the load-bearing hind limbs of the tetrapods evolved." [52] [53] Further research at the University of Chicago found bottom-walking lungfishes had already evolved characteristics of the walking gaits of terrestrial tetrapods. [54] [55]

In a classic example of convergent evolution, the pectoral limbs of pterosaurs, birds and bats further evolved along independent paths into flying wings. Even with flying wings there are many similarities with walking legs, and core aspects of the genetic blueprint of the pectoral fin have been retained. [56] [57]

About 200 million years ago the first mammals appeared. A group of these mammals started returning to the sea about 52 million years ago, thus completing a circle. These are the cetaceans (whales, dolphins and porpoises). Recent DNA analysis suggests that cetaceans evolved from within the even-toed ungulates, and that they share a common ancestor with the hippopotamus. [58] [59] About 23 million years ago another group of bearlike land mammals started returning to the sea. These were the seals. [60] What had become walking limbs in cetaceans and seals evolved further, independently in a reverse form of convergent evolution, back to new forms of swimming fins. The forelimbs became flippers and the hind limbs became a tail terminating in two fins, called a fluke in the case of cetaceans. [61] Fish tails are usually vertical and move from side to side. Cetacean flukes are horizontal and move up and down, because cetacean spines bend the same way as in other mammals. [62] [63]

Ichthyosaurs are ancient reptiles that resembled dolphins. They first appeared about 245 million years ago and disappeared about 90 million years ago.

"This sea-going reptile with terrestrial ancestors converged so strongly on fishes that it actually evolved a dorsal fin and tail in just the right place and with just the right hydrological design. These structures are all the more remarkable because they evolved from nothing — the ancestral terrestrial reptile had no hump on its back or blade on its tail to serve as a precursor." [64]

The biologist Stephen Jay Gould said the ichthyosaur was his favorite example of convergent evolution. [65]

Robotics

In the 1990s the CIA built a robotic catfish called Charlie to test the feasibility of unmanned underwater vehicles. RobotFishCharlie.jpg
In the 1990s the CIA built a robotic catfish called Charlie to test the feasibility of unmanned underwater vehicles.
External videos
Nuvola apps kaboodle.svg Charlie the catfish – CIA video
Nuvola apps kaboodle.svg AquaPenguin – Festo, YouTube
Nuvola apps kaboodle.svg AquaRay – Festo, YouTube
Nuvola apps kaboodle.svg AquaJelly – Festo, YouTube
Nuvola apps kaboodle.svg AiraCuda – Festo, YouTube

The use of fins for the propulsion of aquatic animals can be remarkably effective. It has been calculated that some fish can achieve a propulsive efficiency greater than 90%. [3] Fish can accelerate and maneuver much more effectively than boats or submarine, and produce less water disturbance and noise. This has led to biomimetic studies of underwater robots which attempt to emulate the locomotion of aquatic animals. [66] An example is the Robot Tuna built by the Institute of Field Robotics, to analyze and mathematically model thunniform motion. [67] In 2005, the Sea Life London Aquarium displayed three robotic fish created by the computer science department at the University of Essex. The fish were designed to be autonomous, swimming around and avoiding obstacles like real fish. Their creator claimed that he was trying to combine "the speed of tuna, acceleration of a pike, and the navigating skills of an eel". [68] [69] [70]

The AquaPenguin, developed by Festo of Germany, copies the streamlined shape and propulsion by front flippers of penguins. [71] [72] Festo also developed AquaRay, [73] AquaJelly [74] and AiraCuda, [75] respectively emulating the locomotion of manta rays, jellyfish and barracuda.

In 2004, Hugh Herr at MIT prototyped a biomechatronic robotic fish with a living actuator by surgically transplanting muscles from frog legs to the robot and then making the robot swim by pulsing the muscle fibers with electricity. [76] [77]

Robotic fish offer some research advantages, such as the ability to examine part of a fish design in isolation from the rest, and variance of a single parameter, such as flexibility or direction. Researchers can directly measure forces more easily than in live fish. "Robotic devices also facilitate three-dimensional kinematic studies and correlated hydrodynamic analyses, as the location of the locomotor surface can be known accurately. And, individual components of a natural motion (such as outstroke vs. instroke of a flapping appendage) can be programmed separately, which is certainly difficult to achieve when working with a live animal." [78]

See also

Related Research Articles

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Gymnotiformes</span> Order of bony fishes

The Gymnotiformes are an order of teleost bony fishes commonly known as Neotropical knifefish or South American knifefish. They have long bodies and swim using undulations of their elongated anal fin. Found almost exclusively in fresh water, these mostly nocturnal fish are capable of producing electric fields to detect prey, for navigation, communication, and, in the case of the electric eel, attack and defense. A few species are familiar to the aquarium trade, such as the black ghost knifefish, the glass knifefish, and the banded knifefish.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Flipper (anatomy)</span> Flattened limb adapted for propulsion and maneuvering in water

A flipper is a broad, flattened limb adapted for aquatic locomotion. It refers to the fully webbed, swimming appendages of aquatic vertebrates that are not fish.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Animal locomotion</span> Self-propulsion by an animal

Animal locomotion, in ethology, is any of a variety of methods that animals use to move from one place to another. Some modes of locomotion are (initially) self-propelled, e.g., running, swimming, jumping, flying, hopping, soaring and gliding. There are also many animal species that depend on their environment for transportation, a type of mobility called passive locomotion, e.g., sailing, kiting (spiders), rolling or riding other animals (phoresis).

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Fish locomotion</span> Ways that fish move around

Fish locomotion is the various types of animal locomotion used by fish, principally by swimming. This is achieved in different groups of fish by a variety of mechanisms of propulsion, most often by wave-like lateral flexions of the fish's body and tail in the water, and in various specialised fish by motions of the fins. The major forms of locomotion in fish are:

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Forelimb</span> One of the paired articulated appendages attached on the cranial end of a vertebrates torso

A forelimb or front limb is one of the paired articulated appendages (limbs) attached on the cranial (anterior) end of a terrestrial tetrapod vertebrate's torso. With reference to quadrupeds, the term foreleg or front leg is often used instead. In bipedal animals with an upright posture, the term upper limb is often used.

<i>Acanthostega</i> Extinct genus of tetrapodomorphs

Acanthostega is an extinct genus of stem-tetrapod, among the first vertebrate animals to have recognizable limbs. It appeared in the late Devonian period about 365 million years ago, and was anatomically intermediate between lobe-finned fishes and those that were fully capable of coming onto land.

Many vertebrates are limbless, limb-reduced, or apodous, with a body plan consisting of a head and vertebral column, but no adjoining limbs such as legs or fins. Jawless fish are limbless but may have preceded the evolution of vertebrate limbs, whereas numerous reptile and amphibian lineages – and some eels and eel-like fish – independently lost their limbs. Larval amphibians, tadpoles, are also often limbless. No mammals or birds are limbless, but some feature partial limb-loss or limb reduction.

<i>Tiktaalik</i> Extinct genus of tetrapodomorphs

Tiktaalik is a monospecific genus of extinct sarcopterygian from the Late Devonian Period, about 375 Mya, having many features akin to those of tetrapods. Tiktaalik is estimated to have had a total length of 1.25–2.75 metres (4.1–9.0 ft) based on various specimens.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Walking fish</span> Fish species with the ability to travel over land for extended period of time

A walking fish, or ambulatory fish, is a fish that is able to travel over land for extended periods of time. Some other modes of non-standard fish locomotion include "walking" along the sea floor, for example, in handfish or frogfish.

A limb is a jointed, muscled appendage of a tetrapod vertebrate animal used for weight-bearing, terrestrial locomotion and physical interaction with other objects. The distalmost portion of a limb is known as its extremity. The limbs' bony endoskeleton, known as the appendicular skeleton, is homologous among all tetrapods, who use their limbs for walking, running and jumping, swimming, climbing, grasping, touching and striking.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Aquatic locomotion</span>

Aquatic locomotion or swimming is biologically propelled motion through a liquid medium. The simplest propulsive systems are composed of cilia and flagella. Swimming has evolved a number of times in a range of organisms including arthropods, fish, molluscs, amphibians, reptiles, birds, and mammals.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Fin and flipper locomotion</span>

Fin and flipper locomotion occurs mostly in aquatic locomotion, and rarely in terrestrial locomotion. From the three common states of matter — gas, liquid and solid, these appendages are adapted for liquids, mostly fresh or saltwater and used in locomotion, steering and balancing of the body. Locomotion is important in order to escape predators, acquire food, find mates and bury for shelter, nest or food. Aquatic locomotion consists of swimming, whereas terrestrial locomotion encompasses walking, 'crutching', jumping, digging as well as covering. Some animals such as sea turtles and mudskippers use these two environments for different purposes, for example using the land for nesting, and the sea to hunt for food.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Undulatory locomotion</span>

Undulatory locomotion is the type of motion characterized by wave-like movement patterns that act to propel an animal forward. Examples of this type of gait include crawling in snakes, or swimming in the lamprey. Although this is typically the type of gait utilized by limbless animals, some creatures with limbs, such as the salamander, forgo use of their legs in certain environments and exhibit undulatory locomotion. In robotics this movement strategy is studied in order to create novel robotic devices capable of traversing a variety of environments.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Tradeoffs for locomotion in air and water</span> Comparison of swimming and flying, evolution and biophysics

Certain species of fish and birds are able to locomote in both air and water, two fluid media with very different properties. A fluid is a particular phase of matter that deforms under shear stresses and includes any type of liquid or gas. Because fluids are easily deformable and move in response to applied forces, efficiently locomoting in a fluid medium presents unique challenges. Specific morphological characteristics are therefore required in animal species that primarily depend on fluidic locomotion. Because the properties of air and water are so different, swimming and flying have very disparate morphological requirements. As a result, despite the large diversity of animals that are capable of flight or swimming, only a limited number of these species have mastered the ability to both fly and swim. These species demonstrate distinct morphological and behavioral tradeoffs associated with transitioning from air to water and water to air.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Fish fin</span> Bony skin-covered spines or rays protruding from the body of a fish

Fins are moving appendages protruding from the body of fish that interact with water to generate thrust and help the fish swim. Apart from the tail or caudal fin, fish fins have no direct connection with the spine and are supported only by muscles.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Evolution of tetrapods</span> Evolution of four legged vertebrates and their derivatives

The evolution of tetrapods began about 400 million years ago in the Devonian Period with the earliest tetrapods evolved from lobe-finned fishes. Tetrapods are categorized as animals in the biological superclass Tetrapoda, which includes all living and extinct amphibians, reptiles, birds, and mammals. While most species today are terrestrial, little evidence supports the idea that any of the earliest tetrapods could move about on land, as their limbs could not have held their midsections off the ground and the known trackways do not indicate they dragged their bellies around. Presumably, the tracks were made by animals walking along the bottoms of shallow bodies of water. The specific aquatic ancestors of the tetrapods, and the process by which land colonization occurred, remain unclear. They are areas of active research and debate among palaeontologists at present.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Robot fish</span> Robot designed to move like a living fish

A robot fish is a type of bionic robot that has the shape and locomotion of a living fish. Most robot fish are designed to emulate living fish which use body-caudal fin (BCF) propulsion, and can be divided into three categories: single joint (SJ), multi-joint (MJ) and smart material-based "soft-body" design.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Pelvic fin</span> Paired fins located on the ventral surface of fish

Pelvic fins or ventral fins are paired fins located on the ventral (belly) surface of fish, and are the lower of the only two sets of paired fins. The pelvic fins are homologous to the hindlimbs of tetrapods, which evolved from lobe-finned fish during the Middle Devonian.

Batoids are a superorder of cartilaginous fish consisting of skates, rays and other fish all characterized by dorsoventrally flattened bodies and large pectoral fins fused to the head. This distinctive morphology has resulted in several unique forms of locomotion. Most Batoids exhibit median paired fin swimming, utilizing their enlarged pectoral fins. Batoids that exhibit median paired fin swimming fall somewhere along a spectrum of swimming modes from mobuliform to rajiform based on the number of waves present on their fin at once. Of the four orders of Batoidae this holds truest for the Myliobatiformes (rays) and the Rajiformes (skates). The two other orders: Rhinopristiformes and Torpediniformes exhibit a greater degree of body caudal fin swimming.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Brooke E. Flammang</span> American biologist

Brooke E. Flammang is an American biologist at the New Jersey Institute of Technology. She specializes in functional morphology, biomechanics, and bioinspired technology of fishes. Flammang is a discoverer of the radialis muscle in shark tails. She also studies the adhesive disc of the remora, and the walking cavefish, Cryptotora thamicola. Her work has been profiled by major news outlets including The New York Times, The Washington Post, Wired, BBC Radio 5, Discovery Channel, and National Geographic Wild. She was named one of the "best shark scientists to follow" by Scientific American in 2014.

References

  1. ↑ Fin Oxford dictionary. Retrieved 24 November 2012.
  2. ↑ Fin Archived 2020-11-26 at the Wayback Machine Merriam-Webster dictionary. Retrieved 24 November 2012.
  3. 1 2 3 4 Sfakiotakis, M; Lane, DM; Davies, JBC (1999). "Review of Fish Swimming Modes for Aquatic Locomotion" (PDF). IEEE Journal of Oceanic Engineering. 24 (2): 237–252. Bibcode:1999IJOE...24..237S. CiteSeerX   10.1.1.459.8614 . doi:10.1109/48.757275. S2CID   17226211. Archived from the original (PDF) on 2013-12-24.
  4. ↑ Helfman G, Collette BB, Facey DE and Bowen BW (2009) "Functional morphology of locomotion and feeding" Archived 2015-06-02 at the Wayback Machine Chapter 8, pp. 101–116. In:The Diversity of Fishes: Biology, John Wiley & Sons. ISBN   9781444311907.
  5. ↑ Carlton, John (2007) Marine Propellers and Propulsion Pages 1–28, Butterworth-Heinemann. ISBN   9780750681506.
  6. ↑ Soares, Claire (2008) Gas Turbines: A Handbook of Air, Land, and Sea Applications Archived 2023-12-16 at the Wayback Machine Pages 1–23, Butterworth-Heinemann. ISBN   9780750679695.
  7. 1 2 Franc, Jean-Pierre and Michel, Jean-Marie (2004) Fundamentals of Cavitation Archived 2023-12-16 at the Wayback Machine Springer. ISBN   9781402022326.
  8. 1 2 Brahic, Catherine (2008-03-28). "Dolphins swim so fast it hurts". New Scientist. Archived from the original on 2020-11-09. Retrieved 2008-03-31.
  9. ↑ Nauen, JC; Lauder, GV (2001a). "Locomotion in scombrid fishes: visualization of flow around the caudal peduncle and finlets of the Chub mackerel Scomber japonicus". Journal of Experimental Biology. 204 (13): 2251–63. doi:10.1242/jeb.204.13.2251. PMID   11507109. Archived from the original on 2020-08-07. Retrieved 2012-11-20.
  10. ↑ Nauen, JC; Lauder, GV (2001b). "Three-dimensional analysis of finlet kinematics in the Chub mackerel (Scomber japonicus)". The Biological Bulletin. 200 (1): 9–19. doi:10.2307/1543081. JSTOR   1543081. PMID   11249216. S2CID   28910289. Archived from the original on 2020-06-14. Retrieved 2021-05-19.
  11. ↑ Nauen, JC; Lauder, GV (2000). "Locomotion in scombrid fishes: morphology and kinematics of the finlets of the Chub mackerel Scomber japonicus" (PDF). Journal of Experimental Biology. 203 (15): 2247–59. doi:10.1242/jeb.203.15.2247. PMID   10887065. Archived (PDF) from the original on 2020-10-01. Retrieved 2012-11-20.
  12. ↑ Flammang, BE; Lauder, GV; Troolin, DR; Strand, TE (2011). "Volumetric imaging of fish locomotion". Biology Letters. 7 (5): 695–698. doi:10.1098/rsbl.2011.0282. PMC   3169073 . PMID   21508026. Archived from the original on 2016-03-04. Retrieved 2012-11-21.
  13. ↑
  14. ↑
  15. 1 2 Perez, Tristan (2005) Ship Motion Control: Course Keeping and Roll Stabilisation Using Rudder and Fins Archived 2023-12-16 at the Wayback Machine Springer. ISBN   9781852339593.
  16. 1 2 McClamroch, N Harris (2011) Steady Aircraft Flight and Performance Archived 2023-12-16 at the Wayback Machine Page 2–3, Princeton University Press. ISBN   9780691147192.
  17. ↑ Magnuson JJ (1978) "Locomotion by scombrid fishes: Hydromechanics, morphology and behavior" Archived 2023-12-16 at the Wayback Machine in Fish Physiology, Volume 7: Locomotion, WS Hoar and DJ Randall (Eds) Academic Press. Page 240–308. ISBN   9780123504074.
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