Harris's hawk

Last updated

Harris's hawk
Harris's Hawk (Parabuteo unicinctus) 3 of 4 in set.jpg
Scientific classification OOjs UI icon edit-ltr.svg
Domain: Eukaryota
Kingdom: Animalia
Phylum: Chordata
Class: Aves
Order: Accipitriformes
Family: Accipitridae
Genus: Parabuteo
Species:
P. unicinctus
Binomial name
Parabuteo unicinctus
(Temminck, 1824)
Subspecies

P. u. harrisi
P. u. superior
P. u. unicinctus

Parabuteo unicinctus range map.png
Distribution map of Parabuteo unicinctus
Synonyms [2]

Falco harrisiiAudubon 1839
Buteo harrisiiBonaparte 1839, Audubon 1840
Craxirex harrisiiCoues 1870
Falco unicinctusTemminck 1824
Morphnus unicinctusLesson 1828
Nisus unicinctusCuvier 1829
Buteo unicinctusGray 1844
Hypomorphnus unicinctusCab. & Tschudi 1844
Spizageranus unicinctusKaup 1845
Craxirex unicinctusBonaparte 1854
Asturina unicinctaBurm. 1855
Urubitinga unicinctaSclater 1871
Buteo unicinctus var. harrisiiCoues 1872
Erythrocnema unicinctusSharpe 1874
Polyborus tænuriusTschudi 1844

Contents

Harris's hawk (Parabuteo unicinctus), formerly known as the bay-winged hawk, dusky hawk, and sometimes a wolf hawk, and known in Latin America as peuco, is a medium-large bird of prey that breeds from the southwestern United States south to Chile, central Argentina, and Brazil. This bird is sometimes reported to be at large in Western Europe, especially Britain, but it is a popular species in falconry and these records almost invariably all refer to escapes from captivity.

The name is derived from the Greek para, meaning beside, near or like, and the Latin buteo, referring to a kind of buzzard; uni meaning once; and cinctus meaning girdled, referring to the white band at the tip of the tail. [3] John James Audubon gave this bird its English name in honor of his ornithological companion, financial supporter, and friend Edward Harris. [4]

Harris's hawk is notable for its behavior of hunting cooperatively in packs consisting of tolerant groups, while other raptors often hunt alone. Harris hawks' social nature has been attributed to their intelligence, which makes them easy to train and has made them a popular bird for use in falconry. [5]

Description

The distinctive plumage and tail feathers clearly confirm that this is a Harris's hawk Harris' Hawk plumage.jpg
The distinctive plumage and tail feathers clearly confirm that this is a Harris's hawk

This medium-large hawk is roughly intermediate in size between a peregrine falcon (Falco peregrinus) and a red-tailed hawk (Buteo jamaicensis). Harris's hawks range in length from 46 to 59 cm (18 to 23 in) and generally have a wingspan of about 103 to 120 cm (41 to 47 in). [6] [7] These hawks have a brownish plumage, reddish shoulders, and tail feathers with a white base and white tip. [8]

They exhibit sexual dimorphism with the females being larger by about 35%. In the United States, the average weight for adult males is about 701 g (1.545 lb), with a range of 546 to 850 g (1.204 to 1.874 lb), while the adult female average is 1,029 g (2.269 lb), with a range of 766 to 1,633 g (1.689 to 3.600 lb). [9] [10] They have dark brown plumage with chestnut shoulders, wing linings, and thighs, [11] white on the base and tip of the tail, [12] long, yellow legs, and a yellow cere. [13] The vocalizations of Harris's hawk are very harsh sounds. [6]

The lifespan of Harris's Hawk is 10–12 years in the wild and 20–25 years in captivity. [14]

Juvenile

Juvenile in a falconry demonstration Parabuteo unicinctus falconry.jpg
Juvenile in a falconry demonstration

The juvenile Harris's hawk is mostly streaked with buff and appears much lighter than the dark adults. When in flight, the undersides of the juveniles' wings are buff-colored with brown streaking. They can look unlike adults at first glance, but the identical chestnut plumage is an aid for identification. [13] [ verification needed ]

Unicinctus subspecies (Bay-winged hawk), in Argentina. Parabuteo unicinctus unicinctus (recorte).jpg
Unicinctus subspecies (Bay-winged hawk), in Argentina.

There are three subspecies of Harris's hawk:

Subspecies

ImageSubspeciesDescriptionDistribution
Harris's Hawk Arizona.jpg P. u. superiorP. u. superior was believed to have longer tails and wings and to be more blackish than P. u. harrisi. However, the sample size of the original study was quite small, with only five males and six females. Later research has concluded that there is not as strong a physical difference as was originally assumed. [15] Other ecological differences, such as latitudinal cline were also brought up as arguments against the validity of the subspecies segmentation. [16] Baja California, Arizona, Sonora, and Sinaloa.
Harris' Hawk (Parabuteo unicinctus) (10684271643).jpg P. u. harrisi Texas, eastern Mexico, and much of Central America. [16]
Gavilan mixto en barrio Savoia, City Bell, La Plata, Argentina IMG 6649.jpg P. u. unicinctusIt is smaller than the North American subspecies, tail and wings are proportionally longer, and the adult's dark brown ventrum is streaked or flecked with white or whitish. [17] South America.

Taxonomy

Robert Ridgway placed Harris' Hawk in its own new subgenus Urubitinga (Antenor) in 1873, [18] and introduced the generic name Parabuteo [19] [20] in 1874. Richard Bowdler Sharpe also separated Harris' Hawk to a monotypic genus, Erythrocnema, in 1874. In his Catalogue of Birds in the British Museum, Sharpe gives an extensive synonymy, with various authors having earlier placed harrisii in three genera and unicinctus in eleven. [2]

Distribution and habitat

Harris's hawks live in sparse woodland and semi-desert, as well as marshes (with some trees) in some parts of their range (Howell and Webb 1995), including mangrove swamps, as in parts of their South American range. [21] Harris's hawks are permanent residents and do not migrate. [16] Important perches and nest supports are provided by scattered larger trees or other features (e.g., power poles, woodland edges, standing dead trees, live trees, boulders, and saguaros). [22]

The wild Harris's hawk population is declining due to habitat loss; however, under some circumstances, they have been known to move into developed areas. [23]

Behaviour

This species occurs in relatively stable groups. A dominance hierarchy occurs in Harris's hawks, wherein the mature female is the dominant bird, followed by the adult male and then the young of previous years. Groups typically include from two to seven birds. Not only do birds cooperate in hunting, but they also assist in the nesting process. [24] No other bird of prey is known to hunt in groups as routinely as this species. [25]

Breeding

At one week of age Aa babyharrishawks 00.jpg
At one week of age

They nest in small trees, shrubby growth, or cacti. The nests are often compact, made of sticks, plant roots, and stems and are often lined with leaves, moss, bark, and plant roots. They are built mainly by the female. There are usually two to four white to blueish-white eggs sometimes with a speckling of pale brown or gray. The nestlings start light buff, but in five to six days turn a rich brown. [26]

Very often, there will be three hawks attending one nest: two males and one female. [27] Whether or not this is polyandry is debated, as it may be confused with backstanding (one bird standing on another's back). [28] The female does most of the incubation. The eggs hatch in 31 to 36 days. The young begin to explore outside the nest at 38 days, and fledge, or start to fly, at 45 to 50 days. The female sometimes breeds two or three times in a year. [26] Young may stay with their parents for up to three years, helping to raise later broods. Nests are known to be predated by coyotes (Canis latrans), golden eagles (Aquila chrysaetos), red-tailed hawks (Buteo jamaicensis), great horned owls (Bubo virginianus), and flocks of common ravens (Corvus corax), predators possibly too formidable to be fully displaced by Harris's hawk's cooperative nest defenses. No accounts show predation on adults in the United States and Harris's hawk may be considered an apex predator, although presumably predators like eagles and great horned owls would be capable of killing them. [29] In Chile, black-chested buzzard-eagles (Geranoaetus melanoleucus) are likely predators. [30]

Feeding

Eating a chick's leg Harriss Hawk being with chick leg (7913337978).jpg
Eating a chick's leg

The majority of Harris hawk's prey are mammals, including ground squirrels, rabbits, and larger black-tailed jackrabbits (Lepus californicus). [31] Birds from the size of small passerines such as diuca finch (Diuca diuca) to adult great egret (Ardea alba) and half-grown wild turkey (Meleagris gallapavo) can be taken. [32] [33] [34] In one instance, the lone Harris hawk successfully killed a subadult great blue heron (Ardea herodias). [35] Reptiles such as lizards and snakes are additionally taken as well as large insects. [31] [32]

When hunting in groups, Harris's hawk can take large prey effectively, such as desert cottontail (Syvilagus auduboni), the leading prey species in the north of Harris's hawk's range, usually weighs 800 g (1.8 lb) or less. [36] [37] Even adult black-tailed jackrabbits weighing more than 2,000 g (4.4 lb) can be successfully taken by a pack of harris hawks. [27] [38]

Undoubtedly because it pursues large prey often, this hawk has larger and stronger feet, with long talons, and a larger, more prominent hooked beak than most other raptors around its size. [10] Locally, other buteonine hawks, including the ferruginous hawk, the red-tailed hawk, and the white-tailed hawk also hunt primarily cottontails and jackrabbits, but each is bigger, weighing about 500 g (18 oz), 300 g (11 oz) and 200 g (7.1 oz), respectively, more on average than a Harris's hawk. [39] [40] [41] [42] [43]

In the Southwestern United States, the most common prey species (in descending order of prevalence) are desert cottontail (Syvilagus auduboni), eastern cottontail (Syvilagus floridanus), black-tailed jackrabbit (Lepus californicus), ground squirrels (Ammopsermophilus spp. and Spermophilus spp.), woodrats (Neotoma spp.), kangaroo rats (Dipodomys spp.), pocket gophers (Geomys and Thomomys spp.), Gambel's quail (Callipepla gambelii), scaled quail (C. squamata), northern bobwhite (Colinus virginianus), cactus wren (Campylorhynchus brunneicapillus), northern mockingbird (Mimus polyglottos), desert spiny lizards (Sceloporus magister), and skinks (Eumeces spp.) [44] [45] In the tropics, Harris's hawks have adapted to taking prey of several varieties, including those like chickens and European rabbits introduced by man. [46] [47] In Chile, the common degu (Octodon degus) makes up 67.5% of the prey. [48]

Hunting

While most raptors are solitary, only coming together for breeding and migration, Harris's hawks will hunt in cooperative groups of two to six. This is believed to be an adaptation to the lack of prey in the desert climate in which they live. In one hunting technique, a small group flies ahead and scouts, then another group member flies ahead and scouts, and this continues until prey is bagged and shared. In another, all the hawks spread around the prey and one bird flushes it out. [49] Harris's hawks will often chase prey on foot, and are quite fast on the ground and their long, yellow legs are adapted for this, as most hawks do not spend as much time on the ground. Groups of Harris's hawks tend to be more successful at capturing prey than lone hawks, with groups of two to four individuals having ~10% higher success rates per extra individual. [50]

Relationship with humans

Falconry

Since about 1980, Harris's hawks have been increasingly used in falconry and are now the most popular hawks in the West (outside of Asia) for that purpose, as they are one of the easiest to train and the most social. [51]

Trained Harris's hawks have been used to remove an unwanted pigeon population from London's Trafalgar Square,[ citation needed ] and from the tennis courts at Wimbledon. [52]

Trained Harris's hawks have been used for bird abatement by falconry experts in Canada and the United States at various locations including airports, resorts, landfill sites, and industrial sites. [53]

In art

John James Audubon illustrated Harris's hawk in The Birds of America (published in London, 1827–38) as Plate 392 with the title "Louisiana Hawk -Buteo harrisi". The image was engraved and colored by the Robert Havell, London workshops in 1837. The original watercolor by Audubon was purchased by the New York History Society where it remains to this day (January 2009). [54]

Related Research Articles

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Common buzzard</span> Species of bird of prey

The common buzzard is a medium-to-large bird of prey which has a large range. It is a member of the genus Buteo in the family Accipitridae. The species lives in most of Europe and extends its breeding range across much of the Palearctic as far as northwestern China, far western Siberia and northwestern Mongolia. Over much of its range, it is a year-round resident. However, buzzards from the colder parts of the Northern Hemisphere as well as those that breed in the eastern part of their range typically migrate south for the northern winter, many journeying as far as South Africa.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Hawk</span> Bird of prey

Hawks are birds of prey of the family Accipitridae. They are very widely distributed and are found on all continents except Antarctica.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Accipitridae</span> Family of birds of prey

The Accipitridae is one of the three families within the order Accipitriformes, and is a family of small to large birds of prey with strongly hooked bills and variable morphology based on diet. They feed on a range of prey items from insects to medium-sized mammals, with a number feeding on carrion and a few feeding on fruit. The Accipitridae have a cosmopolitan distribution, being found on all the world's continents and a number of oceanic island groups. Some species are migratory. The family contains 255 species which are divided into 70 genera.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Falconry</span> Hunting with a trained bird of prey

Falconry is the hunting of wild animals in their natural state and habitat by means of a trained bird of prey. Small animals are hunted; squirrels and rabbits often fall prey to these birds. Two traditional terms are used to describe a person involved in falconry: a "falconer" flies a falcon; an "austringer" keeps Goshawks And uses accipiters for hunting. or an eagle. In modern falconry, the red-tailed hawk, Harris's hawk, and the peregrine falcon are some of the more commonly used birds of prey. The practice of hunting with a conditioned falconry bird is also called "hawking" or "gamehawking", although the words hawking and hawker have become used so much to refer to petty traveling traders, that the terms "falconer" and "falconry" now apply to most use of trained birds of prey to catch game. However, any contemporary practitioners still use these words in their original meaning.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Great blue heron</span> Species of bird

The great blue heron is a large wading bird in the heron family Ardeidae, common near the shores of open water and in wetlands over most of North and Central America, as well as far northwestern South America, the Caribbean and the Galápagos Islands. It is occasionally found in the Azores and is a rare vagrant to Europe. An all-white population found in south Florida and the Florida Keys is known as the great white heron. Debate exists about whether this represents a white color morph of the great blue heron, a subspecies of it, or an entirely separate species.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Merlin (bird)</span> Species of bird

The merlin is a small species of falcon from the Northern Hemisphere, with numerous subspecies throughout North America and Eurasia. A bird of prey once known colloquially as a pigeon hawk in North America, the merlin breeds in the northern Holarctic; some migrate to subtropical and northern tropical regions in winter. Males typically have wingspans of 53–58 centimetres (21–23 in), with females being slightly larger. They are swift fliers and skilled hunters which specialize in preying on small birds in the size range of sparrows to quail. The merlin has for centuries been well regarded as a falconry bird. In recent decades merlin populations in North America have been significantly increasing, with some merlins becoming so well adapted to city life that they forgo migration.

<i>Buteo</i> Genus of birds-of-prey including various buzzards and hawks

Buteo is a genus of medium to fairly large, wide-ranging raptors with a robust body and broad wings. In the Old World, members of this genus are called "buzzards", but "hawk" is used in the New World. As both terms are ambiguous, buteo is sometimes used instead, for example, by the Peregrine Fund.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Rough-legged buzzard</span> Species of bird

The rough-legged buzzard (Europe) or rough-legged hawk is a medium-large bird of prey. It is found in Arctic and Subarctic regions of North America, Europe, and Russia during the breeding season and migrates south for the winter. It was traditionally also known as the rough-legged falcon in such works as John James Audubon's The Birds of America.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Great horned owl</span> Species of owl

The great horned owl, also known as the tiger owl or the hoot owl, is a large owl native to the Americas. It is an extremely adaptable bird with a vast range and is the most widely distributed true owl in the Americas. Its primary diet is rabbits and hares, rats and mice, and voles, although it freely hunts any animal it can overtake, including rodents and other small mammals, larger mid-sized mammals, birds, reptiles, amphibians, and invertebrates.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Cooper's hawk</span> Species of bird

Cooper's hawk is a medium-sized hawk native to the North American continent and found from southern Canada to Mexico. This species is a member of the genus Accipiter, sometimes referred to as true hawks, which are famously agile, relatively small hawks common to wooded habitats around the world and also the most diverse of all diurnal raptor genera. As in many birds of prey, the male is smaller than the female. The birds found east of the Mississippi River tend to be larger on average than the birds found to the west. It is easily confused with the smaller but similar sharp-shinned hawk.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Red-tailed hawk</span> Species of bird

The red-tailed hawk is a bird of prey that breeds throughout most of North America, from the interior of Alaska and northern Canada to as far south as Panama and the West Indies. It is one of the most common members within the genus of Buteo in North America or worldwide. The red-tailed hawk is one of three species colloquially known in the United States as the "chickenhawk", though it rarely preys on standard-sized chickens. The bird is sometimes also referred to as the red-tail for short, when the meaning is clear in context. Red-tailed hawks can acclimate to all the biomes within their range, occurring on the edges of non-ideal habitats such as dense forests and sandy deserts. The red-tailed hawk occupies a wide range of habitats and altitudes, including deserts, grasslands, coniferous and deciduous forests, agricultural fields, and urban areas. Its latitudinal limits fall around the tree line in the subarctic and it is absent from the high Arctic. Generally it favors varied habitats with open woodland, woodland edge and open terrain. It is legally protected in Canada, Mexico, and the United States by the Migratory Bird Treaty Act.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Ferruginous hawk</span> Species of bird

The ferruginous hawk is a large bird of prey and belongs to the broad-winged buteo hawks. An old colloquial name is ferrugineous rough-leg, due to its similarity to the closely related rough-legged hawk.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Broad-winged hawk</span> Species of bird

The broad-winged hawk is a medium-sized hawk of the genus Buteo. During the summer, some subspecies are distributed over eastern North America, as far west as British Columbia and Texas; they then migrate south to winter in the Neotropics from Mexico south to southern Brazil. Other subspecies are all-year residents on Caribbean islands. As in most raptors, females are slightly larger than males. Broad-winged hawks' wings are relatively short and broad with a tapered, somewhat pointed appearance. The two types of coloration are a dark morph with fewer white areas and a light morph that is more pale overall. Although the broad-winged hawk's numbers are relatively stable, populations are declining in some parts of its breeding range because of forest fragmentation.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Zone-tailed hawk</span> Species of bird

The zone-tailed hawk is a medium-sized hawk of warm, dry parts of the Americas. It is somewhat similar in plumage and flight style to a common scavenger, the turkey vulture, and may benefit from being able to blend into groups of vultures. It feeds on small terrestrial tetrapods of all kinds.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Galapagos hawk</span> Species of bird

The Galápagos hawk is a large hawk endemic to most of the Galápagos Islands.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Jackal buzzard</span> Species of bird

The jackal buzzard is a fairly large African bird of prey. The taxonomy of this species has caused some confusion in the past and it almost certainly belongs in a species complex with other African Buteo species. Some taxonomists have considered this species, the Archer's buzzard, and the augur buzzard to be the same superspecies. Many taxonomists consider them all to be distinct, having different calls, different home ranges and variations in plumage. This is a species that lives among mountains, and on adjacent savanna and grassland. It is resident and non-migratory throughout its range.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">White-rumped hawk</span> Species of bird

The white-rumped hawk is a species of bird of prey in subfamily Accipitrinae, the "true" hawks, of family Accipitridae. It is found in Argentina, Bolivia, Brazil, Colombia, Ecuador, Paraguay, Peru, and Venezuela.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Eurasian goshawk</span> Species of bird

The Eurasian goshawk is a species of medium-large bird of prey in the family Accipitridae, a family which also includes other extant diurnal raptors, such as eagles, buzzards and harriers. As a species in the genus Accipiter, the goshawk is often considered a "true hawk". The scientific name is Latin; Accipiter is "hawk", from accipere, "to grasp", and gentilis is "noble" or "gentle" because in the Middle Ages only the nobility were permitted to fly goshawks for falconry.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Red-shouldered hawk</span> Species of bird

The red-shouldered hawk is a medium-sized buteo. Its breeding range spans eastern North America and along the coast of California and northern to northeastern-central Mexico. It is a permanent resident throughout most of its range, though northern birds do migrate, mostly to central Mexico. The main conservation threat to the widespread species is deforestation.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Swainson's hawk</span> Species of bird

Swainson's hawk is a large bird species in the Accipitriformes order. This species was named after William Swainson, a British naturalist. It is colloquially known as the grasshopper hawk or locust hawk, as it is very fond of Acrididae and will voraciously eat these insects whenever they are available.

References

  1. ↑ BirdLife International (2016). "Parabuteo unicinctus". IUCN Red List of Threatened Species . 2016: e.T22695838A93529685. doi: 10.2305/IUCN.UK.2016-3.RLTS.T22695838A93529685.en . Retrieved 19 November 2021.
  2. 1 2 Sharpe, R. Bowdler (1874). "Genus 20. Erythrocnema". Catalogue of the Birds in the British Museum: Volume 1, Catalogue of the Accipitres or diurnal birds of prey in the collection of the British Museum. London. pp. 84–86.{{cite book}}: CS1 maint: location missing publisher (link)
  3. ↑ Jobling, James A. (1991). A Dictionary of Scientific Bird Names. Oxford University Press. ISBN   978-0-19-854634-4.
  4. ↑ National Audubon Society. "Audubon". Audubon. Archived from the original on 2008-04-09. Retrieved 2013-04-29.
  5. ↑ Beebe, Frank (1984). A Falconry Manual. Hancock House Publishers, ISBN   0-88839-978-2, page 81.
  6. 1 2 Udvardy, Miklos D. F. (2001). National Audubon Society Field Guide to North American Birds 'Western Region'. Knopf Doubleday Publishing. ISBN   978-0-679-42851-0.
  7. ↑ Clark, W. S. and B. K. Wheeler (1987). A Field Guide to Hawks of North America. Houghton Mifflin Co. Boston.
  8. ↑ "Harris's Hawk - Appearance" . 2015. doi:10.2173/bow.hrshaw.01. S2CID   216204185 . Retrieved October 22, 2018.
  9. ↑ Dunning, John B. Jr. (1993). CRC Handbook of Avian Masses. CRC Press. ISBN   978-0-8493-4258-5.
  10. 1 2 Hamerstrom, F. (1978). "External sex characters of Harris' Hawks in winter". Raptor Res. 12:1–14.
  11. ↑ National Geographic Society (1983). Birds of North America. National Geographic Society. ISBN   978-0-87044-472-2.
  12. ↑ Sibley, David Allen (2000). National Audubon Society: The Sibley Guide to Birds. Knopf. ISBN   978-0-679-45122-8.
  13. 1 2 Rappole, John H. (2000). Birds of the Southwest. Texas A&M University Press. ISBN   978-0-89096-958-8.
  14. ↑ "Harris hawk". Oregon Zoo. Retrieved 22 November 2021.
  15. ↑ Bednarz, J. C. (1988). "Harris' hawk subspecies: is superior larger or different than harrisi?". in Proceedings of the southwest raptor management symposium and workshop. Washington, D.C. pp. 294–300.
  16. 1 2 3 Bednarz, James C. (1995). "Harris's Hawk (Parabuteo unicinctus)".
  17. ↑ Blake, Ferguson-Lees and Christie cited in Birds of the world "Parabuteo unicinctrus" https://birdsoftheworld.org/bow/species/hrshaw/cur/systematics#subsp
  18. ↑ Ridgway, Robert (1873). "Catalogue of the ornithological collection of the Boston Society of Natural History. Part II. Falconidae". Proceedings of the Boston Society of Natural History (Proc. Boston Soc. Nat. Hist.). 16: 43–72. Intermediate between Buteo and Urubitinga, … Type Falco unicincta Temm.Antenor Ridgeway Nov. subgen. is on page 63.
  19. ↑ Baird, Spencer Fullerton; Brewer, T. M.; Ridgway, Robert (1874). A history of North American birds. Land birds. Vol. 3. Little, Brown. pp. 248–252. … a new generic name should be instituted for the present species, since it so well merits separation to that rank. On page 248, the heading is "Genus Antenor Ridgway", but the subspecies heading is "Parabuteo unicinctus var. harisii (Ridgway)".
  20. ↑ "IRMNG - Parabuteo Baird, Brewer & Ridgway, 1874". www.irmng.org. Retrieved 30 October 2023.
  21. ↑ (in Spanish) Olmos Fábio & Robson Silva e Silva (2003). Guará-Ambiente, Flora e Fauna dos Manguezais de Santos-CubatãoEmpresa das Artes, ISBN   85-89138-06-2
  22. ↑ Bednarz, J. C. and J. D. Ligon. (1988). A study of the ecological bases of cooperative breeding in the Harris' hawk. Ecology 69:1176–1187.
  23. ↑ Discoll, James T. "Harris' Hawk". Archived from the original on 2007-11-23. Retrieved 2007-11-19.
  24. ↑ Dawson, J. W. and R. W. Mannan. (1991). The role of territoriality in the social organization of Harris' hawks. Auk 108:661–672.
  25. ↑ Griffin, C. R. (1976). A preliminary comparison of Texas and Arizona Harris' Hawks (Parabuteo unicinctus) populations. Raptor Res. 10:50–54.
  26. 1 2 Baicich, Paul J.; Harrison, Colin J. O. (1997). Nests, Eggs, and Nestlings of North American Birds. Princeton University Press. ISBN   978-0-691-12295-3.
  27. 1 2 Kaufmann, Kenn (1996). Lives of North American Birds. Houghton Mifflin Company. ISBN   978-0-395-77017-7.
  28. ↑ Ligon, J. David (1999). The Evolution of Avian Breeding Systems. Oxford Ornithology Series. Vol. 10. Oxford University Press. ISBN   978-0198549130 . Retrieved 4 August 2013.
  29. ↑ Dawson, J. W. and R. W. Mannan. (1991). Dominance hierarchies and helper contributions in Harris' Hawks. Auk 108:649–660.
  30. ↑ Jiménez, J. E., & Jaksić, F. M. (1989). Behavioral ecology of grey eagle-buzzards, Geranoaetus melanoleucus, in central Chile. Condor 913–921.
  31. 1 2 Del Hoyo, Josep, et al. Handbook of the birds of the world. Vol. 1. No. 8. Lynx Ed., 1992.
  32. 1 2 Ferguson-Lees, James, and David A. Christie. Raptors of the world. Houghton Mifflin Harcourt, 2001.
  33. ↑ Santander, Francisco J., et al. "PREY OF HARRIS'HAWKS (PARABUTEO UNICINCTUS) DURING AUTUMN AND WINTER IN A COASTAL AREA OF CENTRAL CHILE." The Southwestern Naturalist (2011): 417-422.
  34. ↑ Houcke, H.H. (1971). Predation By a White-Tailed Hawk and a Harris' Hawk on a Wild Turkey Poult Condor 4: 475.
  35. ↑ Woodward, H.D. (2003). Lone Harris' Hawk Kills Great Blue Heron. The Raptor Research Foundation 1:85–86.
  36. ↑ Bednarz, J. C. (1988). A comparative study of the breeding ecology of Harris's and Swainson's hawks in southeastern New Mexico. Condor 90:311–323.
  37. ↑ Bednarz, J. C., J. W. Dawson, and W. H. Whaley. (1988). Harris' Hawk. Pages 71–82 in Proceedings of the southwest raptor management symposium and workshop. (Glinski, R. L., B. G. Pendleton, M. B. Moss, M. N. LeFranc, Jr., B. A. Millsap, and S. W. Hoffman, Eds.) Natl. Wildl. Fed. Washington, D.C.
  38. ↑ Coulson, Jennifer O., and Thomas D. Coulson. "Reexamining cooperative hunting in Harris's Hawk (Parabuteo unicinctus): large prey or challenging habitats?." The Auk 130.3 (2013): 548-552.
  39. ↑ Smith, D. G. and J. R. Murphy. (1978). Biology of the Ferruginous Hawk in central Utah. Sociobiology 3:79–98.
  40. ↑ Thurow, T. L., C. M. White, R. P. Howard, and J. F. Sullivan. (1980). Raptor ecology of Raft River valley, Idaho. EG&G Idaho, Inc. Idaho Falls.
  41. ↑ Smith, D. G. and J. R. Murphy. (1973). Breeding ecology of raptors in the East Great Basin Desert of Utah. Brigham Young Univ. Sci. Bull., Biol. Ser. Vol. 18:1–76.
  42. ↑ Farquhar, C. C. (1986). Ecology and breeding behavior of the White-tailed Hawk on the northern coastal prairies of Texas. PhD. diss. Texas A & M Univ. College Station.
  43. ↑ Dunning Jr., John B. (Editor). (1992). CRC Handbook of Avian Body Masses. CRC Press. ISBN   978-0-8493-4258-5.
  44. ↑ Mader, W. J. (1975). Biology of the Harris' hawk in southern Arizona. Living Bird 14:59–85.
  45. ↑ Brannon, J. D. (1980). The reproductive ecology of a Texas Harris's hawk (Parabuteo unicinctus harrisi) population. Master's Thesis. Univ. of Texas, Austin.
  46. ↑ Nutting, C. C. (1883). On a collection of birds from the Hacienda "La Palma," Gulf of Nicoya, Costa Rica, with critical notes by Robert Ridgway. Proc. U.S. Natl. Mus. 1982(5):382–409.
  47. ↑ Johnson, A. W. (1965). The birds of Chile and adjacent regions of Argentina, Bolivia, and Peru. Platt Establecimientos Graficos, Buenos Aires.
  48. ↑ Jaksic, F. M., J. L. Yanez, and R. P. Schlatter. (1980). Prey of the Harris' hawk in central Chile. Auk 97:196–198.
  49. ↑ Cook, William E. (1997). Avian Desert Predators. Springer. ISBN   978-3-540-59262-4.[ page needed ]
  50. ↑ Dawson, James (1988). The cooperative breeding system of the Harris' Hawk in Arizona (M.S.). The University of Arizona. Retrieved 17 November 2017.
  51. ↑ "Raptors page". Users.cybercity.dk. Archived from the original on 2013-03-05. Retrieved 2013-04-29.
  52. ↑ Mount, Harry (2017-07-03). "Introducing Rufus the hawk: the official bird scarer of the Wimbledon Championships". Daily Telegraph. Retrieved 2018-10-22.
  53. ↑ Mraz, Tiffany. "BLOG: Phoenician resort hires hawks to keep pesky birds away from diners". AZFamily. Retrieved 2020-08-19.
  54. ↑ "Audubon's Watercolors Octavo Pl. 392, Harris' Hawk". Joel Oppenheimer, Inc. Retrieved 2019-10-29.

Historical material

This page is based on this Wikipedia article
Text is available under the CC BY-SA 4.0 license; additional terms may apply.
Images, videos and audio are available under their respective licenses.