Northern bobwhite

Last updated

Northern bobwhite
Temporal range: Pleistocene–present
Ꞓ
O
S
D
C
P
T
J
K
Pg
N
↓
Virginiawachtel 2007-06-16 065.jpg
Adult male
Northern Bobwhite female RWD.jpg
Adult female
Status TNC G4.svg
Apparently Secure  (NatureServe) [2]
Scientific classification OOjs UI icon edit-ltr.svg
Kingdom: Animalia
Phylum: Chordata
Class: Aves
Order: Galliformes
Family: Odontophoridae
Genus: Colinus
Species:
C. virginianus
Binomial name
Colinus virginianus
(Linnaeus, 1758)
Subspecies

23; see text

Colinus virginianus map.svg
Synonyms
  • Tetrao virginianusLinnaeus, 1758
  • Ortyx virginianaJardine, 1834 [3]

The northern bobwhite (Colinus virginianus), also known as the Virginia quail or (in its home range) bobwhite quail, is a ground-dwelling bird native to Canada, the United States, Mexico, and Cuba, with introduced populations elsewhere in the Caribbean, Europe, and Asia. It is a member of the group of species known as New World quail (Odontophoridae). They were initially placed with the Old World quail in the pheasant family (Phasianidae), but are not particularly closely related. The name "bobwhite" is an onomatopoeic derivation from its characteristic whistling call. Despite its secretive nature, the northern bobwhite is one of the most familiar quails in eastern North America, because it is frequently the only quail in its range. Habitat degradation has contributed to the northern bobwhite population in eastern North America declining by roughly 85% from 1966 to 2014. [4] This population decline is apparently range-wide and continuing. [5] [6]

Contents

There are 20 subspecies of northern bobwhite, many of which are hunted extensively as game birds. One subspecies, the masked bobwhite (Colinus virginianus ridgwayi), is listed as endangered with wild populations located in the northern Mexican state of Sonora and a reintroduced population in Buenos Aires National Wildlife Refuge in southern Arizona.

Taxonomy and systematics

Subspecies

Plate 76 of Birds of America by John James Audubon depicting Virginian Partridge. 76 Virginian Partridge.jpg
Plate 76 of Birds of America by John James Audubon depicting Virginian Partridge.

There are 20 recognized subspecies in four groups. One subspecies, the Key West bobwhite (C. v. insulanus), is extinct. The subspecies are listed in taxonomic order: [7] [8]

The holotype specimen of Ortyx pectoralis Gould (Proc. Zool. Soc. London, 1842 (1843), p.182.) is held in the collections of the National Museums Liverpool at the World Museum, with accession number D3713. The specimen died in the aviary at Knowsley Hall, Lancashire and came to the Liverpool national collection via the 13th Earl of Derby's collection, which was bequeathed to the people of Liverpool in 1851.

Description

C. virginianus is a moderately-sized quail, and is the only small galliform native to eastern North America. The bobwhite can range from 24 to 28 cm (9.4 to 11.0 in) in length with a 33 to 38 cm (13 to 15 in) wingspan. As indicated by body mass, weights increase in birds found further north, as corresponds to Bergmann's rule. In Mexico, northern bobwhites weigh from 129 to 159 g (4.6 to 5.6 oz) whereas in the north they average 170 to 173 g (6.0 to 6.1 oz) and large males can attain as much as 255 g (9.0 oz). [9] [10] Among standard measurements, the wing chord is 9.7 to 11.7 cm (3.8 to 4.6 in), the tail is 5 to 6.8 cm (2.0 to 2.7 in) the culmen is 1.3 to 1.6 cm (0.51 to 0.63 in) and the tarsus is 2.7 to 3.3 cm (1.1 to 1.3 in). [11] It has the typical chunky, rounded shape of a quail. The bill is short, curved and brown-black in color. This species is sexually dimorphic. Males have a white throat and brow stripe bordered by black. The overall rufous plumage has gray mottling on the wings, white scalloped stripes on the flanks, and black scallops on the whitish underparts. The tail is gray. Females are similar but are duller overall and have a buff throat and brow without the black border. Both sexes have pale legs and feet.[ citation needed ]

Distribution and habitat

The northern bobwhite can be found year-round in agricultural fields, grassland, open woodland areas, roadsides and wood edges. Its range covers the southeastern quadrant of the United States from the Great Lakes and southern Minnesota east to New York State and southern Massachusetts, and extending west to southern Nebraska, Kansas, Oklahoma, Colorado front-range foothills to 7,000 feet, and all but westernmost Texas.

It is absent from the southern tip of Florida (where the extinct Key West bobwhite subspecies once lived) and the highest elevations of the Appalachian Mountains, but occurs in eastern Mexico and in Cuba, and has been introduced to Hispaniola (both the Dominican Republic and Haiti), the Bahamas, the Turks and Caicos Islands, the U.S. Virgin Islands (formerly), Puerto Rico, France, China, Portugal, and Italy. Isolated populations also have been introduced in Oregon and Washington. The northern bobwhite has also been introduced to New Zealand. [12]

There is no self-sustaining population in Pennsylvania, where the bird is considered extirpated; [13] it is also considered extirpated in the states of New Hampshire [14] and Connecticut. [15] Its distribution in New York has been limited to Suffolk and Nassau Counties on Long Island, as well as potential population pockets in Upstate New York. The bird is considered declining or extirpated throughout much of the Northeastern United States. [16] Similarly, the bird is almost extirpated from Ontario (and Canada as a whole), with the only self-sustaining population confirmed to exist recorded on Walpole Island. [17]

Vocalizations

The clear whistle "bob-WHITE" or "bob-bob-WHITE" call is very recognizable. The syllables are slow and widely spaced, rising in pitch a full octave from beginning to end. Other calls include lisps, peeps, and more rapidly whistled warning calls.

Behavior and ecology

Egg Colin de Virginie MHNT.jpg
Egg

Like most game birds, the northern bobwhite is shy and elusive. When threatened, it will crouch and freeze, relying on camouflage to stay undetected, but will flush into low flight if closely disturbed. It is generally solitary or paired early in the year, but family groups are common in the late summer and winter roosts may have two dozen or more birds in a single covey. [18]

Breeding

The species was once considered monogamous, but with the advent of radio telemetry, the sexual behavior of bobwhites has better been described as ambisexual polygamy. [19] Either parent may incubate a clutch for 23 days, and the precocial young leave the nest shortly after hatching. The main source of nest failure is predation, with nest success averaging 28% across their range. [20] However, the nest success of stable populations is typically much higher than this average, and the aforementioned estimate includes values for declining populations.

Brooding behavior varies in that amalgamation (kidnapping, adopting, creching, gang brooding) may occur. [21] [22] An incubating parent may alternatively stay with its young. A hen may re-nest up to four times until she has a successful nest. However, it is extremely rare for bobwhites to hatch more than two successful nests within one nesting season. [23]

Food and feeding

The northern bobwhite's diet consists of plant material and small invertebrates, such as ticks, snails, grasshoppers, beetles, spiders, crickets, and leafhoppers. [24] Plant sources include seeds, wild berries, partridge peas, and cultivated grains. It forages on the ground in open areas with some spots of taller vegetation. [25]

Optimal nutrient requirements for bobwhite vary depending on the age of bird and the time of the year. For example, the optimal protein requirement for egg laying hens (23% protein) is much higher than for males (16%). [26] [27]

Relationship to humans

Introduced populations

European Union

Northern bobwhite were introduced into Italy in 1927, [28] and are reported in the plains and hills in the northwest of the country. Other reports from the EU are in France, Spain, and Yugoslavia. [29] As bobwhites are highly productive and popular aviary subjects, it is reasonable to expect other introductions have been made in other parts of the EU, especially in the U.K. and Ireland, where game-bird breeding, liberation, and naturalization are relatively common practices. [30]

New Zealand

From 1898 [31] to 1902, some 1,300 birds were imported from America and released in many parts of the North and South Islands, [32] from Northland to Southland. The bird was briefly on the Nelson game shooting licence, but: "It would seem that the committee was a little too eager in placing these Quail on the licence, or the shooters of the day were over-zealous and greedy in their bag limits, for the Virginian Quail, like the Mountain Quail were soon a thing of the past." [33] The Taranaki (Acclimatisation) Society released a few in 1900 and was confidant that in a year or two they might offer good sport; two years later, broods were reported and the species was said to be steadily increasing; but after another two years they seemed to have disappeared and that was the end of them. The Otago (Acclimatisation) Society imported more in 1948, [34] but these releases did no good. [35] [36] After 1923, no more genuinely wild birds were sighted until 1952, when a small population was found northwest of Wairoa in the Ruapapa Road area. Since then, bobwhite have been found at several localities around Waikaremoana, in farmland, open bush and along roadsides. [32]

More birds have been imported into New Zealand by private individuals since the 1990s and a healthy captive population is now held by backyard aviculturists and have been found to be easily cared for and bred and are popular for their song and good looks. A larger proportion of the national captive population belong to a few game preserves and game bird breeders. Though the birds would be self-sustaining in the wild if they were protected; it is tricky to guess what the effect of an annual population subsidy and hunting has on any of the original populations from the Acclimatisation Society releases.

An albino hen was present in a covey in Bayview, Hawkes Bay for a couple of seasons sometime around 2000. [37]

Captivity

Domesticated northern bobwhite Domesticated quail.png
Domesticated northern bobwhite

Housing

Bobwhites are generally compatible with most parrots, softbills and doves. This species should, however, be the only ground-dwelling species in the aviary. Most individuals will do little damage to finches, but one should watch that nests are not being crushed when the species perches at night. Single pairs are preferred, unless the birds have been raised together as a group since they were chicks. Some fighting will occur between cocks at breeding time. One cock may be capable of breeding with several hens, but the fertility seems to be highest in the eggs from the preferred hen. Aviary style is a compromise between what is tolerated by the bird and what is best for the bird. Open parrot-style type aviaries may be used, but some birds will remain flighty and shy in this situation. In a planted aviary, this species will generally settle down to become quite tame and confiding. Parents with chicks will roost on the ground, forming a circular arrangement, with heads facing outwards. In the early morning and late afternoon, the cock will utter his call, which, although not loud, carries well and may offend noise-sensitive neighbors. Most breeding facilities keep birds in breeding groups on wire up off the ground. This keeps the birds clean and generally avoids diseases and parasites, which can devastate a covey. Cages with mesh floors for pairs and trios are also employed, but usually where there is a photo-period manipulation to keep birds breeding through winter.[ citation needed ]

Feeding

In the wild the northern bobwhite feeds on a variety of weed and grass seeds, as well as insects. These are generally collected on the ground or from low foliage. Birds in the aviary are easily catered for with a commercial small seed mix (finch, budgerigar, or small parrot mix) when supplemented with greenfeed. Live food is not usually necessary for breeding, but will be ravenously accepted. High protein foods such as chicken grower crumble are more convenient to supply and will be useful for the stimulation of breeding birds. Extra calcium is required, especially by laying hens; it can be supplied in the form of shell grit, or cuttlefish bone. [38]

Breeding

If a nesting site and privacy are not provided, hens will lay anywhere within an open aviary. Hens that do this may, in a season, lay upwards of 80 eggs, which can be taken for artificial incubation and the chicks hand-raised. Hens with nesting cover that do make a nest (on the ground) will build up 8–25 eggs in a clutch, with eggs being laid daily. [39]

Mutations and hybrids

Some captive bobwhite hybrids recorded are between blue quail (scaled quail), [40] Gambel's quail, California quail, and mountain quail. It has long been suggested that there are Japanese quail hybrids being bred commercially; however, there is a distinct lack of photographic proof to substantiate this. Inter-subspecific hybrids have been common.

Several mutations have long been established, including Californian Jumbo, Wisconsin Jumbo, Northern Giant, Albino, Snowflake, Blonde, Fawn, Barred, Silver, and Red.

Status

The northern bobwhite is rated as a Near-threatened species by the International Union for Conservation of Nature. [41] The northern bobwhite is threatened across its range due to habitat loss and habitat degradation. Changing land use patterns and changing fire regimes have caused once prime habitat to become unfavorable for the bobwhite.

Masked bobwhite

The masked bobwhite subspecies, C. v. ridgwayi, is listed as endangered in the U.S. The birds were twice declared extirpated in Arizona in the past century. It was originally endemic to southern Arizona in the U.S., and northern Sonora in Mexico. It is considered a Critically Imperiled Subspecies by NatureServe. [42]

The masked bobwhite was in decline since its discovery in 1884. By 1900, the subspecies was already extinct in the U.S. Populations remained in Mexico, but their study was curtailed by political events in Mexico, including the Mexican Revolution and the last of the Yaqui Wars. A population of the masked bobwhite was finally discovered and studied in Mexico, in 1931 and 1932. [43]

A native population historically existed in Sonora, but by 2017, its population appeared to be declining, or possibly extinct. [43] A 2017 study recorded no wild sightings of the bird in Sonora. [44] Decline of the species has been attributed to intense livestock grazing in an ecosystem that does not rejuvenate quickly.

A captive flock was established in Arizona in the 1970s. The George Miksch Sutton Avian Research Center (Sutton Center) became involved with conservation efforts in 2017 to establish a breeding population at the Sutton Center in Oklahoma, in order to reintroduce birds to Buenos Aires National Wildlife Refuge (BANWR). [45] In 2019, biologists from the Sutton Center transported 1,000 chicks by road vehicle to Buenos Aires National Wildlife Refuge. In 2020, a projected total of 1,200 birds will be transported by airplanes to BANWR. [46] These recent actions are supplemental, and in addition to other conservation efforts in the past, seem to aid the subspecies' future conservation efforts. [47] [48]

In 2023, the masked bobwhite subspecies will be featured on a United States Postal Service Forever stamp as part of the Endangered Species set, based on a photograph from Joel Sartore's Photo Ark. The stamp will be dedicated at a ceremony at the National Grasslands Visitor Center in Wall, South Dakota. [49]

See also

Related Research Articles

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Quail</span> Index of animals with the same common name

Quail is a collective name for several genera of mid-sized birds generally placed in the order Galliformes. The collective noun for a group of quail is a flock, covey, or bevy.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">New World quail</span> Family of birds

The New World quail are small birds related to the Old World quail, and are named for their similar appearance and habits. The American species are in their own family, the Odontophoridae, whereas Old World quail are in the Phasianidae. The family ranges from Canada through to southern Brazil, and two species, the California quail and the bobwhite quail, have been successfully introduced to New Zealand. The stone partridge and Nahan's partridge, both found in Africa, seem to belong to the family. Species are found across a variety of habitats from tropical rainforest to deserts, although few species are capable of surviving at very low temperatures. The 34 species are placed in 10 genera.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Greater prairie chicken</span> Species of bird

The greater prairie chicken or pinnated grouse, sometimes called a boomer, is a large bird in the grouse family. This North American species was once abundant, but has become extremely rare and extirpated over much of its range due to habitat loss. Conservation measures are underway to ensure the sustainability of existing small populations. One of the most famous aspects of these creatures is the mating ritual called booming.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Greater sage-grouse</span> Species of bird

The greater sage-grouse, also known as the sagehen, is the largest grouse in North America. Its range is sagebrush country in the western United States and southern Alberta and Saskatchewan, Canada. It was known as simply the sage grouse until the Gunnison sage-grouse was recognized as a separate species in 2000. The Mono Basin population of sage grouse may also be distinct.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Gunnison grouse</span> Species of bird

The Gunnison grouse, Gunnison sage-grouse or lesser sage-grouse is a species of grouse endemic to the United States. It is similar to the closely related greater sage-grouse in appearance, but about a third smaller in size, with much thicker plumes behind the head; it also has a less elaborate courtship dance. It is restricted in range to southwestern Colorado and extreme southeastern Utah, with the largest population residing in the Gunnison Basin region in Colorado. Despite being native to a country where the avifauna is relatively well known, it was overlooked until the 1990s due to the similarities with the sage grouse, and only described as a new species in 2000—making it the first new avian species to be described from the USA since the 19th century. The description of C. minimus as a separate species is supported by a molecular study of genetic variation, showing that gene flow between the large-bodied and the small-bodied birds is absent.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Red-legged partridge</span> Species of bird

The red-legged partridge is a gamebird in the pheasant family Phasianidae of the order Galliformes, gallinaceous birds. It is sometimes known as French partridge, to distinguish it from the English or grey partridge. The genus name is from Ancient Greek alektoris a farmyard chicken, and rufa is Latin for red or rufous.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Great horned owl</span> Species of owl

The great horned owl, also known as the tiger owl, or the hoot owl, is a large owl native to the Americas. It is an extremely adaptable bird with a vast range and is the most widely distributed true owl in the Americas. Its primary diet is rabbits and hares, rats and mice, and voles, although it freely hunts any animal it can overtake, including rodents and other small mammals, larger mid-sized mammals, birds, reptiles, amphibians, and invertebrates. In ornithological study, the great horned owl is often compared to the Eurasian eagle-owl, a closely related species, which despite the latter's notably larger size, occupies the same ecological niche in Eurasia, and the red-tailed hawk, with which it often shares similar habitat, prey, and nesting habits by day, thus is something of a diurnal ecological equivalent. The great horned owl is one of the earliest nesting birds in North America, often laying eggs weeks or even months before other raptorial birds.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">American yellow warbler</span> Species of bird

The yellow warbler is a New World warbler species. Yellow warblers are the most widespread species in the diverse genus Setophaga. The species can be found throughout most of North America and migrates to wintering grounds from southern California to the Amazon region, Bolivia, and Peru.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Spotted owl</span> Species of owl

The spotted owl is a species of true owl. It is a resident species of old-growth forests in western North America, where it nests in tree hollows, old bird of prey nests, or rock crevices. Nests can be between 12 and 60 metres high and usually contain two eggs. It is a nocturnal owl which feeds on small mammals and birds. Three subspecies are recognized, ranging in distribution from British Columbia to Mexico. The spotted owl is under pressure from habitat destruction throughout its range, and is currently classified as a near-threatened species.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Harris's hawk</span> Species of bird

The Harris's hawk, formerly known as the bay-winged hawk, dusky hawk, and sometimes a wolf hawk, and known in Latin America as peuco, is a medium-large bird of prey that breeds from the southwestern United States south to Chile, central Argentina, and Brazil. This bird is sometimes reported to be at large in Western Europe, especially Britain, but it is a popular species in falconry and these records almost invariably all refer to escapes from captivity.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">King quail</span> Species of bird

The king quail, also known as the blue-breasted quail, Asian blue quail, Chinese painted quail, or Chung-Chi, is a species of Old World quail in the family Phasianidae. This species is the smallest "true quail", ranging in the wild from southern China, South and Southeast Asia to Oceania, south to southeastern Australia, with 9 different subspecies. A failed attempt was made to introduce this species to New Zealand by the Otago Acclimatisation Society in the late 1890s. It is quite common in aviculture worldwide, where it is sometimes misleadingly known as the "button quail", which is the name of an only very distantly related family of birds, the buttonquails.

Tall Timbers Research Station and Land Conservancy is a research and learning facility located in northern Leon County, Florida, just off County Road 12 on the north side of Lake Iamonia. Tall Timbers researches the areas of fire ecology, resource management, forestry, game bird management, and vertebrate ecology.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Scaled quail</span> Species of bird

The scaled quail, also commonly called blue quail or cottontop, is a species of the New World quail family. It is a bluish gray bird found in the arid regions of the Southwestern United States to Central Mexico. This species is an early offshoot of the genus Callipepla, diverging in the Pliocene.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Sprague's pipit</span> Species of bird

Sprague's pipit is a small songbird (passerine) in the family Motacillidae that breeds in the short- and mixed-grass prairies of North America. Migratory, it spends the winters in the southwestern United States and northern Mexico. Sprague's pipits are unusual among songbirds in that they sing high in the sky, somewhat like a goldfinch or skylark. It is more often identified by its distinctive descending song heard from above than by being seen on the ground. Males and females are cryptically coloured and similar in appearance; they are a buffy brown with darker streaking, slender bills and pinkish to yellow legs. Sprague's pipit summer habitat is primarily native grasslands in the north central prairies of the United States and Canada. The species was named after the botanical illustrator Isaac Sprague.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Mountain quail</span> Species of bird

The mountain quail is a small ground-dwelling bird in the New World quail family. This species is the only one in the genus Oreortyx, which is sometimes included in Callipepla. This is not appropriate, however, as the mountain quail's ancestors have diverged from other New World quails earlier than the bobwhites, no later than 6 mya.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Crested bobwhite</span> Species of bird

The crested bobwhite is a species of bird in the family Odontophoridae. It is found in northern South America, extending through Panama to just reach Costa Rica. It also occurs on Aruba and the Netherlands Antilles. Its natural habitats are subtropical or tropical dry shrubland, subtropical or tropical seasonally wet or flooded lowland grassland, and heavily degraded former forest.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Gulf of California xeric scrub</span> Xeric shrubland ecoregion of the Baja California Peninsula of Mexico

The Gulf of California xeric scrub is a xeric shrubland ecoregion of Mexico's Baja California Peninsula.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Spot-bellied bobwhite</span> Species of bird

The spot-bellied bobwhite is a ground-dwelling bird in the New World quail family. It is sometimes considered to be conspecific with the crested bobwhite, Colinus cristatus. As the latter species expands north into Costa Rica, it is likely that the two species will overlap in range in the future, but the Costa Rican subspecies of the spot-bellied is the least similar to the crested.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Cactus wren</span> Desert bird, United States and Mexico

The cactus wren is a species of wren that is endemic to the deserts of the southwestern United States and northern and central Mexico. It is the state bird of Arizona, and the largest wren in the United States. Its plumage is brown, with black and white spots as markings. It has a distinctive white eyebrow that sweeps to the nape of the neck. The chest is white, whereas the underparts are cinnamon-buff colored. Both sexes appear similar. The tail, as well as flight feathers, are barred in black and white. Their song is a loud raspy chirrup; akin in the description of some ornithologists to the sound of a car engine that will not start. It is well-adapted to its native desert environment, and the birds can meet their water needs from their diet which consists chiefly of insects, but also of some plant matter. The cactus wren is a poor flier and generally forages for food on the ground. Ornithologists generally recognize seven subspecies, with the exact taxonomy under dispute.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Buenos Aires National Wildlife Refuge</span> Protected area in Pima County, Arizona

Buenos Aires National Wildlife Refuge provides 117,107 acres (47,392 ha) of habitat for threatened and endangered plants and animals. This refuge, in Pima County, Arizona, was established in 1985.

References

  1. ↑ BirdLife International (2021). "Colinus virginianus". IUCN Red List of Threatened Species . 2021: e.T22728956A178045540. Retrieved 30 March 2022.
  2. ↑ "NatureServe Explorer 2.0". explorer.natureserve.org. Retrieved 30 March 2022.
  3. ↑ "Northern Bobwhite". World Bird Info. Archived from the original on 1 August 2013. Retrieved 3 May 2013.
  4. ↑ "Northern Bobwhite". Cornell University. Retrieved 14 February 2017.
  5. ↑ "The 116th Christmas Bird Count Summary". National Audubon Society. 21 November 2016. Archived from the original on 22 February 2017. Retrieved 22 February 2017.
  6. ↑ "BBS Trend Maps - Northern Bobwhite Colinus virginianus". Patuxent Wildlife Research Center. Retrieved 6 December 2018.
  7. ↑ "Megapodes, guans, guineafowl, New World quail – IOC World Bird List". www.worldbirdnames.org. Retrieved 28 January 2023.
  8. ↑ Brennan, Leonard A.; Hernandez, Fidel; Williford, Damon (2020). "Northern Bobwhite (Colinus virginianus), version 1.0". Birds of the World. doi:10.2173/bow.norbob.01.
  9. ↑ Pheasants, Partridges, and Grouse : A Guide to the Pheasants, Partridges, Quails, Grouse, Guineafowl, Buttonquails, and Sandgrouse of the World (Princeton Field Guides) by Tami Davis Biddle. Princeton University Press (2002). ISBN   978-0691089089.
  10. ↑ Nelson, A. L. and A. C. Martin. 1953. Gamebird weights. J. Wildl. Manage. 17:36-42.
  11. ↑ Aldrich, J. W. 1946. The United States races of the bob-white. The Auk 63:493-508.
  12. ↑ "IUCN Red List of Threatened Species: Colinus virginianus". IUCN Red List of Threatened Species. October 2016.
  13. ↑ "Northern Bobwhite Quail".
  14. ↑ "Official New Hampshire State Bird List". New Hampshire Audubon. 28 February 2019. Retrieved 11 August 2021.
  15. ↑ Gallo, Frank (18 June 2021). "Checklist of the Birds of Connecticut". Connecticut Ornithological Association. Retrieved 1 August 2021.
  16. ↑ "Species Assessment for Northern bobwhite" (PDF). New York State Department of Environmental Conservation. 1 November 2017. Archived (PDF) from the original on 9 October 2022. Retrieved 23 March 2022.
  17. ↑ "NatureServe Explorer 2.0". explorer.natureserve.org. Retrieved 30 March 2022.
  18. ↑ National Audubon Society (n.d.). "Northern bobwhite: Colonus virginialis". www.audubon.org. National Audubon Society. Retrieved 21 October 2022.
  19. ↑ Hernandez, F (2012). Beef, Brush, and Bobwhites. Texas A&M University Press. ISBN   9781603444750.
  20. ↑ Rollins, D; Carroll, JP (2001). "Impacts of Predation on Northern Bobwhite and Scaled Quail". Journal of Wildlife Management. 29: 39–51.
  21. ↑ Faircloth, BC; Palmer, WE; Carroll; JP (2005). "Post-Hatching Brood Amalgamation in Northern Bobwhites / Mezcla polluelos parvadas de Colinus virginianus". Journal of Field Ornithology. 76: 175–182. doi:10.1648/0273-8570-76.2.175. S2CID   53983235.
  22. ↑ Brooks, JL (2007). "Gang-Brooding in Northern Bobwhites in West Texas". Wilson Journal of Ornithology. 119: 137–138. doi:10.1676/06-040.1. S2CID   86453173.
  23. ↑ Sisson, DC (2017). "TRIPLE BROOD PRODUCTION BY NORTHERN BOBWHITES". National Quail Symposium. 8: 238.
  24. ↑ Butler, DA; Palmer, WE; Cook, MP (2012). "The invertebrate diet of northern bobwhite chicks in Georgia, United States". Animal Biodiversity and Conservation. 35 (2): 415–418. doi: 10.32800/abc.2012.35.0415 .
  25. ↑ "Northern Bobwhite" (PDF). Wildlife Habitat Council. September 1999. pp. 2–3. Archived from the original (PDF) on 11 February 2017. Retrieved 21 March 2018.
  26. ↑ Nestler, RB (1949). "Nutrition of Bobwhite Quail". Journal of Wildlife Management. 13 (4): 342–358. doi:10.2307/3795628. JSTOR   3795628.
  27. ↑ Case, RM; Robel, RJ (1974). "Bioenergetics of the Bobwhite". Journal of Wildlife Management. 38 (4): 638–652. doi:10.2307/3800031. JSTOR   3800031.
  28. ↑ Ghigi, 1968
  29. ↑ Meriggi, Alberto; Gariboldi, Armando; Magnani, Barbara (January 1992). "Habitat requirements of the bobwhite quail in northern Italy". Bolletino di Zoologia. 59 (1): 73–78. doi:10.1080/11250009209386651.
  30. ↑ "Bobwhite Quail".[ permanent dead link ]
  31. ↑ Ayson, L.F. 1899:1.
  32. 1 2 K.E. Westerskov, MSc, PhD. Complete Book of New Zealand Birds
  33. ↑ Ann.Rep. Nelson Acclimatisation Society, 1968:38
  34. ↑ Ann. Rep. Otago Acclimatisation Society, 1948
  35. ↑ Ann. Rep. North Canterbury Acclimatisation Society, 1954:21
  36. ↑ Gamekeepers for the Nation, 1994, R.M. McDowell
  37. ↑ J.J. Holland
  38. ↑ Coles, Brian H. (2009). Handbook of Avian Medicine (Second ed.). Saunders Ltd. pp. 309–334. doi:10.1016/B978-0-7020-2874-8.X0001-6. ISBN   978-0-7020-2874-8.
  39. ↑ The Cornell Lab of Ornithology. "Northern Bobwhite". All About Birds.org. Cornell University. Retrieved 10 June 2019.
  40. ↑ McCabe, Robert A. (1954). "Hybridization between the Bob-White and Scaled Quail". The Auk. 71 (3): 293–297. doi:10.2307/4081671. ISSN   0004-8038. JSTOR   4081671.
  41. ↑ "The IUCN Red List of Threatened Species". IUCN Red List of Threatened Species. Retrieved 8 May 2019.
  42. ↑ "NatureServe Explorer 2.0". explorer.natureserve.org. Retrieved 30 March 2022.
  43. 1 2 Brown, David; Clark, Kevin (8 November 2017). "The Saga of the Masked Bobwhite: Lessons Learned and Unlearned". National Quail Symposium Proceedings. 8 (1). ISSN   2573-5667.
  44. ↑ García-Solórzano, David; López-González, Edgardo; Islas, Carlos (8 November 2017). "Conservation Status of the Masked Bobwhite in Sonora, Mexico". National Quail Symposium Proceedings. 8 (1). ISSN   2573-5667.
  45. ↑ "Masked Bobwhite – Sutton Center". suttoncenter.org. George Miksch Sutton Avian Research Center. Retrieved 19 July 2020.
  46. ↑ Bostian, Kelly. "Tiny birds, big wings - volunteer flights helping to prop up endangered quail population". Tulsaworld.com. Tulsa World. Retrieved 19 July 2020.
  47. ↑ "Masked Bobwhite | 5-Year Review: Summary and Evaluation" (PDF). US Fish and Wildlife Service. March 2014. Archived (PDF) from the original on 9 October 2022.
  48. ↑ Carpenter, James W.; Gabel, Robert R.; Goodwin, John G. (1991). "Captive breeding and reintroduction of the endangered masked bobwhite". Zoo Biology. 10 (6): 439–449. doi:10.1002/zoo.1430100602. ISSN   1098-2361.
  49. ↑ "Postal Service Spotlights Endangered Species". United States Postal Service. 19 April 2023. Retrieved 11 May 2023.
This page is based on this Wikipedia article
Text is available under the CC BY-SA 4.0 license; additional terms may apply.
Images, videos and audio are available under their respective licenses.