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Macroevolution usually means the evolution of large-scale structures and traits that go significantly beyond the intraspecific variation found in microevolution. In other words, macroevolution is the evolution of taxa above the species level.
In genetics, the phenotype is the set of observable characteristics or traits of an organism. The term covers the organism's morphology, its developmental processes, its biochemical and physiological properties, its behavior, and the products of behavior. An organism's phenotype results from two basic factors: the expression of an organism's genetic code and the influence of environmental factors. Both factors may interact, further affecting the phenotype. When two or more clearly different phenotypes exist in the same population of a species, the species is called polymorphic. A well-documented example of polymorphism is Labrador Retriever coloring; while the coat color depends on many genes, it is clearly seen in the environment as yellow, black, and brown. Richard Dawkins in 1978 and then again in his 1982 book The Extended Phenotype suggested that one can regard bird nests and other built structures such as caddisfly larva cases and beaver dams as "extended phenotypes".
Forkhead box protein P2 (FOXP2) is a protein that, in humans, is encoded by the FOXP2 gene. FOXP2 is a member of the forkhead box family of transcription factors, proteins that regulate gene expression by binding to DNA. It is expressed in the brain, heart, lungs and digestive system.
In biology and genetics, the germline is the population of a multicellular organism's cells that develop into germ cells. In other words, they are the cells that form gametes, which can come together to form a zygote. They differentiate in the gonads from primordial germ cells into gametogonia, which develop into gametocytes, which develop into the final gametes. This process is known as gametogenesis.
The laboratory mouse or lab mouse is a small mammal of the order Rodentia which is bred and used for scientific research or feeders for certain pets. Laboratory mice are usually of the species Mus musculus. They are the most commonly used mammalian research model and are used for research in genetics, physiology, psychology, medicine and other scientific disciplines. Mice belong to the Euarchontoglires clade, which includes humans. This close relationship, the associated high homology with humans, their ease of maintenance and handling, and their high reproduction rate, make mice particularly suitable models for human-oriented research. The laboratory mouse genome has been sequenced and many mouse genes have human homologues. Lab mice are sold at pet stores for snake food and can also be kept as pets.
In biology, adaptation has three related meanings. Firstly, it is the dynamic evolutionary process of natural selection that fits organisms to their environment, enhancing their evolutionary fitness. Secondly, it is a state reached by the population during that process. Thirdly, it is a phenotypic trait or adaptive trait, with a functional role in each individual organism, that is maintained and has evolved through natural selection.
Peromyscus is a genus of rodents. They are commonly referred to as deer mice or deermice, not to be confused with the chevrotain or "mouse deer". They are New World mice only distantly related to the common house and laboratory mouse, Mus musculus. From this relative, Peromyscus species are distinguished by relatively larger eyes, and also often two-tone coloring, with darker colors over the dorsum (back), and white abdominal and limb hair-coloring. In reference to the coloring, the word Peromyscus comes from Greek words meaning "booted mouse". They are also accomplished jumpers and runners by comparison to house mice, and their common name of "deer mouse" is in reference to this agility.
Mary Frances Lyon was an English geneticist best known for her discovery of X-chromosome inactivation, an important biological phenomenon.
Agouti-signaling protein is a protein that in humans is encoded by the ASIP gene. It is responsible for the distribution of melanin pigment in mammals. Agouti interacts with the melanocortin 1 receptor to determine whether the melanocyte produces phaeomelanin, or eumelanin. This interaction is responsible for making distinct light and dark bands in the hairs of animals such as the agouti, which the gene is named after. In other species such as horses, agouti signalling is responsible for determining which parts of the body will be red or black. Mice with wildtype agouti will be grey-brown, with each hair being partly yellow and partly black. Loss of function mutations in mice and other species cause black fur coloration, while mutations causing expression throughout the whole body in mice cause yellow fur and obesity.
CLOCK is a gene encoding a basic helix-loop-helix-PAS transcription factor that is known to affect both the persistence and period of circadian rhythms.
Lethal alleles are alleles that cause the death of the organism that carries them. They are usually a result of mutations in genes that are essential for growth or development. Lethal alleles may be recessive, dominant, or conditional depending on the gene or genes involved.
The melanocortin 1 receptor (MC1R), also known as melanocyte-stimulating hormone receptor (MSHR), melanin-activating peptide receptor, or melanotropin receptor, is a G protein–coupled receptor that binds to a class of pituitary peptide hormones known as the melanocortins, which include adrenocorticotropic hormone (ACTH) and the different forms of melanocyte-stimulating hormone (MSH). It is coupled to Gαs and upregulates levels of cAMP by activating adenylyl cyclase in cells expressing this receptor. It is normally expressed in skin and melanocytes, and to a lesser degree in periaqueductal gray matter, astrocytes and leukocytes. In skin cancer, MC1R is highly expressed in melanomas but not carcinomas.
Susan L. Ackerman is an American neuroscientist and geneticist. Her work has highlighted some of the genetic and biochemical factors that are involved in the development of the central nervous system and age-related neurodegeneration. Her research is aimed at helping scientists understand what causes several types of neurodegeneration in mammals. This research, and others' like it, may lead to cures for neurodegenerative diseases. Ackerman is a professor at University of California San Diego. She was formerly a professor at the Jackson Laboratory and the Sackler School of Graduate Biomedical Sciences at Tufts University. She also serves as an adjunct professor at the University of Maine, Orono. Ackerman was an associate geneticist at Massachusetts General Hospital in Boston, Massachusetts.
Elizabeth Jane Robertson is a British developmental biologist based at the Sir William Dunn School of Pathology, University of Oxford. She is Professor of Developmental Biology at Oxford and a Wellcome Trust Principal Research Fellow. She is best known for her pioneering work in developmental genetics, showing that genetic mutations could be introduced into the mouse germ line by using genetically altered embryonic stem cells. This discovery opened up a major field of experimentation for biologists and clinicians.
Ying-Hui Fu is a Taiwanese-American biologist and human geneticist who has made important contributions to understanding the genetics of many neurological disorders. Her chief discoveries include describing Mendelian sleep phenotypes, identifying causative genes and mutations for circadian rhythm disorders, and characterizing genetic forms of demyelinating degenerative disorders. Fu is currently a professor of neurology at the University of California, San Francisco. She was elected to the US National Academy of Sciences in 2018.
The ALX3 gene, also known as aristaless-like homeobox 3, is a protein coding gene that provides instructions to build a protein which is a member of the homeobox protein family. This grouping regulates patterns of anatomical development. The gene encodes a nuclear protein that functions as a transcription regulator involved in cell-type differentiation and development.
Steve David Macleod Brown is director of the Medical Research Council (MRC) Mammalian Genetics Unit, MRC Harwell at Harwell Science and Innovation Campus, Oxfordshire, a research centre on mouse genetics. In addition, he leads the Genetics and Pathobiology of Deafness research group.
Nobuyo N. Maeda is a Japanese geneticist and medical researcher, who works on complex human diseases including atherosclerosis, diabetes and high blood pressure, and is particularly known for creating the first mouse model for atherosclerosis. Maeda has worked in the United States since 1978; as of 2017, she is the Robert H. Wagner Distinguished Professor at the University of North Carolina at Chapel Hill.
The agouti gene, the Agouti-signaling protein (ASIP) is responsible for variations in color in many species. Agouti works with extension to regulate the color of melanin which is produced in hairs. The agouti protein causes red to yellow pheomelanin to be produced, while the competing molecule α-MSH signals production of brown to black eumelanin. In wildtype mice, alternating cycles of agouti and α-MSH production cause agouti coloration. Each hair has bands of yellow which grew during agouti production, and black which grew during α-MSH production. Wildtype mice also have light-colored bellies. The hairs there are a creamy color the whole length because the agouti protein was produced the whole time the hairs were growing.
Marisa Bartolomei is an American cell biologist, the Perelman Professor of Cell and Developmental Biology and Co-Director of the Epigenetics Institute at the Perelman School of Medicine at the University of Pennsylvania. Her research considers epigenetic processes including genomic imprinting. She was elected to the National Academy of Sciences in 2021.
References
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- ↑ "Hopi E. Hoekstra". oeb.harvard.edu. Retrieved 2023-11-13.
- ↑ "May 3, 2016: NAS Members and Foreign Associates Elected". www.nasonline.org. Archived from the original on May 6, 2016. Retrieved 2016-05-03.
- ↑ "American Academy of Arts and Sciences 2017 Fellows and Foreign Honorary Members With Their Affiliation at the Time of Election". www.nasonline.org. Retrieved 2016-05-03.
- ↑ Rosenberg, John (June 26, 2023). "Hopi Hoekstra Appointed Faculty of Arts and Sciences Dean". Harvard Magazine.
- 1 2 "Hopi Hoekstra". Current Biology. 20 (7): PR305–R306. April 13, 2010.
- ↑ "Harvard taps Hopi Hoekstra, 'pathbreaking scholar' and life scientist, as next dean of Faculty of Arts and Sciences - the Boston Globe". The Boston Globe .
- ↑ Gorman, James (2013-01-28). "Hide and Seek With Deer Mice". The New York Times. ISSN 0362-4331 . Retrieved 2024-03-06.
- ↑ "Modern Darwins". Magazine. 2009-02-01. Retrieved 2024-03-06.
- ↑ Gorman, James (2013-01-28). "Digging Deep in the DNA". The New York Times. ISSN 0362-4331 . Retrieved 2024-03-06.
- 1 2 3 Gorman, James (16 January 2013). "Study Discovers DNA That Tells Mice How to Construct Their Homes". The New York Times. Retrieved 28 December 2015.
- ↑ Zimmer, Carl (2017-04-19). "Why Are Some Mice (and People) Monogamous? A Study Points to Genes". The New York Times. ISSN 0362-4331 . Retrieved 2024-03-06.
- ↑ Yong, Ed (2019-01-31). "The Wild Experiment That Showed Evolution in Real Time". The Atlantic. Retrieved 2024-03-06.
- ↑ Rosner, Hillary (2011-08-08). "A Colorful Way to Watch Evolution in Nebraska's Sand Dunes". The New York Times. ISSN 0362-4331 . Retrieved 2024-03-06.
- ↑ Yong, Ed (2016-11-02). "How the Mouse Got Its Stripes". The Atlantic. Retrieved 2024-03-06.
- ↑ "Announcing the 2022 Lowell Thomas Awardees". 23 August 2022.
- ↑ Hellmiss, Renate (2022-02-03). "Hopi Hoekstra Named as a 2021 AAAS Fellow". Harvard University - Department of Molecular & Cellular Biology. Retrieved 2024-03-06.
- ↑ "2019 Merriam Award – Hopi Hoekstra". The American Society of Mammalogists. September 18, 2019. Retrieved 18 September 2020.
- ↑ "Election of New Members at the 2018 Spring Meeting". American Philosophical Society. April 28, 2018. Retrieved 1 August 2018.
- ↑ "Hopi E. Hoekstra". American Academy of Arts & Sciences. 2023-11-13. Retrieved 2023-11-13.
- ↑ "Hopi E. Hoekstra". www.nasonline.org. Retrieved 2023-11-13.
- ↑ "Richard Lounsbery Award". www.nasonline.org. Retrieved 2023-11-13.
- ↑ "Hopi Hoekstra". Arnold and Mabel Beckman Foundation. Archived from the original on 1 August 2018. Retrieved 1 August 2018.
- ↑ "Awards". www.amnat.org. Retrieved 2023-11-13.
- ↑ "Ernst Mayr Award". www.systbio.org. Retrieved 6 January 2021.
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