Housefly

Last updated

Housefly
Common house fly, Musca domestica.jpg
Adult male
Scientific classification OOjs UI icon edit-ltr.svg
Domain: Eukaryota
Kingdom: Animalia
Phylum: Arthropoda
Class: Insecta
Order: Diptera
Family: Muscidae
Tribe: Muscini
Genus: Musca
Species:
M. domestica
Binomial name
Musca domestica
Subspecies

The housefly (Musca domestica) is a fly of the suborder Cyclorrhapha. It possibly originated in the Middle East, and spread around the world as a commensal of humans. It is the most common fly species found in houses. Adults are gray to black, with four dark, longitudinal lines on the thorax, slightly hairy bodies, and a single pair of membranous wings. They have red eyes, set farther apart in the slightly larger female.

Contents

The female housefly usually mates only once and stores the sperm for later use. She lays batches of about 100 eggs on decaying organic matter such as food waste, carrion, or feces. These soon hatch into legless white larvae, known as maggots. After two to five days of development, these metamorphose into reddish-brown pupae, about 8 millimetres (3⁄8 inch) long. Adult flies normally live for two to four weeks, but can hibernate during the winter. The adults feed on a variety of liquid or semi-liquid substances, as well as solid materials which have been softened by their saliva. They can carry pathogens on their bodies and in their feces, contaminate food, and contribute to the transfer of food-borne illnesses, while, in numbers, they can be physically annoying. For these reasons, they are considered pests.

Houseflies, with short life cycles and ease with which they can be maintained, have been found useful for laboratory research into aging and sex determination. Houseflies appear in literature from Ancient Greek myth and Aesop's "The Impertinent Insect" onwards. Authors sometimes choose the housefly to speak of the brevity of life, as in William Blake's 1794 poem "The Fly", which deals with mortality subject to uncontrollable circumstances. [1]

Description

Head of a female housefly with two large compound eyes and three ocelli House Fly Eye Closeup (cropped).jpg
Head of a female housefly with two large compound eyes and three ocelli

Adult houseflies are usually 6 to 7 mm (1⁄4 to 9⁄32 in) long with a wingspan of 13 to 15 mm (1⁄2 to 19⁄32 in). The females tend to be larger winged than males, while males have relatively longer legs. Females tend to vary more in size [2] and there is geographic variation with larger individuals in higher latitudes. [3] The head is strongly convex in front and flat and slightly conical behind. The pair of large compound eyes almost touch in the male, but are more widely separated in the female. They have three simple eyes (ocelli) and a pair of short antennae. [4] Houseflies process visual information around seven times more quickly than humans, enabling them to identify and avoid attempts to catch or swat them, since they effectively see the human's movements in slow motion with their higher flicker fusion rate. [5] [6]

Housefly mouthparts, showing the pseudotracheae, semitubular grooves (dark parallel bands) used for sucking up liquid food Houseflymouth100x1.jpg
Housefly mouthparts, showing the pseudotracheae, semitubular grooves (dark parallel bands) used for sucking up liquid food

The mouthparts are specially adapted for a liquid diet; the mandibles and maxillae are reduced and not functional, and the other mouthparts form a retractable, flexible proboscis with an enlarged, fleshy tip, the labellum. This is a sponge-like structure that is characterized by many grooves, called pseudotracheae, which suck up fluids by capillary action. [7] [8] It is also used to distribute saliva to soften solid foods or collect loose particles. [9] Houseflies have chemoreceptors, organs of taste, on the tarsi of their legs, so they can identify foods such as sugars by walking over them. [10] Houseflies are often seen cleaning their legs by rubbing them together, enabling the chemoreceptors to taste afresh whatever they walk on next. [11] At the end of each leg is a pair of claws, and below them are two adhesive pads, pulvilli, enabling the housefly to walk up smooth walls and ceilings using Van der Waals forces. The claws help the housefly to unstick the foot for the next step. Houseflies walk with a common gait on horizontal and vertical surfaces with three legs in contact with the surface and three in movement. On inverted surfaces, they alter the gait to keep four feet stuck to the surface. [12] Houseflies land on a ceiling by flying straight towards it; just before landing, they make a half roll and point all six legs at the surface, absorbing the shock with the front legs and sticking a moment later with the other four. [13]

A housefly wing under 250x magnification House Fly Wing.jpg
A housefly wing under 250x magnification

The thorax is a shade of gray, sometimes even black, with four dark, longitudinal bands of even width on the dorsal surface. The whole body is covered with short hairs. Like other Diptera, houseflies have only one pair of wings; what would be the hind pair is reduced to small halteres that aid in flight stability. The wings are translucent with a yellowish tinge at their base. Characteristically, the medial vein (M1+2 or fourth long vein) shows a sharp upward bend. Each wing has a lobe at the back, the calypter, covering the haltere. The abdomen is gray or yellowish with a dark stripe and irregular dark markings at the side. It has 10 segments which bear spiracles for respiration. In males, the ninth segment bears a pair of claspers for copulation, and the 10th bears anal cerci in both sexes. [4] [14]

Micrograph of the tarsus of the leg showing claws and bristles, including the central one between the two pulvilli known as the empodium Micrograph of house-fly leg.jpeg
Micrograph of the tarsus of the leg showing claws and bristles, including the central one between the two pulvilli known as the empodium

A variety of species around the world appear similar to the housefly, such as the lesser house fly, Fannia canicularis; the stable fly, Stomoxys calcitrans; [14] and other members of the genus Musca such as M. vetustissima , the Australian bush fly and several closely related taxa that include M. primitiva, M. shanghaiensis, M. violacea, and M. varensis. [15] : 161–167  The systematic identification of species may require the use of region-specific taxonomic keys and can require dissections of the male reproductive parts for confirmation. [16] [17]

Distribution

The housefly is probably the insect with the widest distribution in the world; it is largely associated with humans and has accompanied them around the globe. It is present in the Arctic, as well as in the tropics, where it is abundant. It is present in all populated parts of Europe, Asia, Africa, Australasia, and the Americas. [4]

Evolution and taxonomy

Anatomy Pfurtscheller Table 31.png
Anatomy

Though the order of flies (Diptera) is much older, true houseflies are believed to have evolved in the beginning of the Cenozoic Era. [18] The housefly's superfamily, Muscoidea, is most closely related to the Oestroidea (blow flies, flesh flies and allies), and more distantly to the Hippoboscoidea (louse flies, bat flies and allies). They are thought to have originated in the southern Palearctic region, particularly the Middle East. Because of their close, commensal relationship with humans, they probably owe their worldwide dispersal to co-migration with humans. [19]

The housefly was first described as Musca domestica in 1758 based on the common European specimens by the Swedish botanist and zoologist Carl Linnaeus in his Systema naturae and continues to be classified under that name. [20] A more detailed description was given in 1776 by the Danish entomologist Johan Christian Fabricius in his Genera Insectorum. [4]

Life cycle

Houseflies mating Musca domestica mating (cropped).jpg
Houseflies mating

Each female housefly can lay up to 500 eggs in her lifetime, in several batches of about 75 to 150. The eggs are white and are about 1.2 mm (1⁄16 in) in length, and they are deposited by the fly in a suitable place, usually dead and decaying organic matter, such as food waste, carrion, or feces. Within a day, larvae (maggots) hatch from the eggs; they live and feed where they were laid. They are pale-whitish, 3 to 9 mm (1⁄8 to 11⁄32 in) long, thinner at the mouth end, and legless. [14] Larval development takes from two weeks, under optimal conditions, to 30 days or more in cooler conditions. The larvae avoid light; the interiors of heaps of animal manure provide nutrient-rich sites and ideal growing conditions, warm, moist, and dark. [14]

Housefly larva and adult, by Amedeo John Engel Terzi (1872-1956) The larva and fly of a house fly (Musca domestica). Coloured Wellcome V0022571.jpg
Housefly larva and adult, by Amedeo John Engel Terzi (1872–1956)

At the end of their third instar, the larvae crawl to a dry, cool place and transform into pupae. The pupal case is cylindrical with rounded ends, about 8 mm (5⁄16 in) long, and formed from the last shed larval skin. It is yellowish at first, darkening through red and brown to nearly black as it ages. Pupae complete their development in two to six days at 35 °C (95 °F), but may take 20 days or more at 14 °C (57 °F). [14]

When metamorphosis is complete, the adult housefly emerges from the pupa. To do this, it uses the ptilinum, an eversible pouch on its head, to tear open the end of the pupal case. Having emerged from the pupa, it ceases to grow; a small fly is not necessarily a young fly, but is instead the result of getting insufficient food during the larval stage. [14]

Male houseflies are sexually mature after 16 hours and females after 24. Females produce a pheromone, (Z)-9-tricosene (muscalure). This cuticular hydrocarbon is not released into the air and males sense it only on contact with females; [13] it has found use as in pest control, for luring males to fly traps. [21] [22] The male initiates the mating by bumping into the female, in the air or on the ground, known as a "strike". He climbs on to her thorax, and if she is receptive, a courtship period follows, in which the female vibrates her wings and the male strokes her head. The male then reverses onto her abdomen and the female pushes her ovipositor into his genital opening; copulation, with sperm transfer, lasts for several minutes. Females normally mate only once and then reject further advances from males, while males mate multiple times. [23] A volatile semiochemical that is deposited by females on their eggs attracts other gravid females and leads to clustered egg deposition. [24]

The larvae depend on warmth and sufficient moisture to develop; generally, the warmer the temperature, the faster they grow. In general, fresh swine and chicken manures present the best conditions for the developing larvae, reducing the larval period and increasing the size of the pupae. Cattle, goat, and horse manures produce fewer, smaller pupae, while mature swine manure composted with water content under 30%, approached 100% mortality of the larvae. Pupae can range from about 8–20 milligrams (0.12–0.31 gr) in weight under different conditions. [25]

The life cycle can be completed in seven to ten days under optimal conditions, but may take up to two months in adverse circumstances. In temperate regions, 12 generations may occur per year, and in the tropics and subtropics, more than 20. [14]

Ecology

Housefly pupae killed by parasitoid wasp larvae: Each pupa has one hole through which a single adult wasp has emerged; the wasp larvae fed on the housefly larvae. Housefly pupae killed by wasp larvae.jpg
Housefly pupae killed by parasitoid wasp larvae: Each pupa has one hole through which a single adult wasp has emerged; the wasp larvae fed on the housefly larvae.

Houseflies play an important ecological role in breaking down and recycling organic matter. Adults are mainly carnivorous; their primary food is animal matter, carrion, and feces, but they also consume milk, sugary substances, and rotting fruit and vegetables. Solid foods are softened with saliva before being sucked up. [8] They can be opportunistic blood feeders. [15] : 189  Houseflies have a mutualistic relationship with the bacterium Klebsiella oxytoca , which can live on the surface of housefly eggs and deter fungi which compete with the housefly larvae for nutrients. [26]

Adult houseflies are diurnal and rest at night. If inside a building after dark, they tend to congregate on ceilings, beams, and overhead wires, while out of doors, they crawl into foliage or long grass, or rest in shrubs and trees or on wires. [14] In cooler climates, some houseflies hibernate in winter, choosing to do so in cracks and crevices, gaps in woodwork, and the folds of curtains. They arouse in the spring when the weather warms up, and search out a place to lay their eggs. [27]

Houseflies have many predators, including birds, reptiles, amphibians, various insects, and spiders. The eggs, larvae, and pupae have many species of stage-specific parasites and parasitoids. Some of the more important are the parasitic wasps Muscidifurax uniraptor and Spalangia cameroni ; these lay their eggs in the housefly larvae tissue and their offspring complete their development before the adult houseflies can emerge from the pupae. [14] Hister beetles feed on housefly larvae in manure heaps and the predatory mite Macrocheles muscae domesticae consumes housefly eggs, each mite eating 20 eggs per day. [28]

Housefly killed by the pathogenic fungus Entomophthora muscae Musca domestica mit cf Entomophthora muscae 4418.jpg
Housefly killed by the pathogenic fungus Entomophthora muscae

Houseflies sometimes carry phoretic (nonparasitic) passengers, including mites such as Macrocheles muscaedomesticae [29] and the pseudoscorpion Lamprochernes chyzeri . [30]

The pathogenic fungus Entomophthora muscae causes a fatal disease in houseflies. After infection, the fungal hyphae grow throughout the body, killing the housefly in about five days. Infected houseflies have been known to seek high temperatures that could suppress the growth of the fungus. Affected females tend to be more attractive to males, but the fungus-host interactions have not been fully understood. [31] The housefly also acts as the alternative host to the parasitic nematode Habronema muscae that attacks horses. [32] A virus that causes enlargement of the salivary glands, salivary gland hypertrophy virus (SGHV), is spread among houseflies through contact with food and infected female houseflies become sterile. [33]

Relationship with humans

Houseflies are a nuisance, disturbing people while at leisure and at work, but they are disliked principally because of their habits of contaminating foodstuffs. They alternate between breeding and feeding in dirty places with feeding on human foods, during which process they soften the food with saliva and deposit their feces, creating a health hazard. [34] However, housefly larvae are as nutritious as fish meal, and could be used to convert waste to insect-based animal feed for farmed fish and livestock. [35] Housefly larvae have been used in traditional cures since the Ming period in China (1386 AD) for a range of medical conditions and have been considered as a useful source of chitosan, with antioxidant properties, and possibly other proteins and polysaccharides of medical value. [36]

Houseflies have been used in art and artifacts in many cultures. In 16th- and 17th-century European vanitas paintings, houseflies sometimes occur as memento mori . They may also be used for other effects as in the Flemish painting, the Master of Frankfurt (1496). Housefly amulets were popular in ancient Egypt. [37] [38]

As a disease vector

Housefly lapping up food from a plate 07682jfFood cuisine dishes Baliuag, Bulacanfvf 18 (cropped).jpg
Housefly lapping up food from a plate

Houseflies can fly for several kilometers from their breeding places, [39] carrying a wide variety of organisms on their hairs, mouthparts, vomitus, and feces. Parasites carried include cysts of protozoa, e.g. Entamoeba histolytica and Giardia lamblia and eggs of helminths; e.g., Ascaris lumbricoides , Trichuris trichiura , Hymenolepis nana , and Enterobius vermicularis . [40] Houseflies do not serve as a secondary host or act as a reservoir of any bacteria of medical or veterinary importance, but they do serve as mechanical vectors to over 100 pathogens, such as those causing typhoid, cholera, salmonellosis, [41] bacillary dysentery, [42] tuberculosis, anthrax, ophthalmia, [43] and pyogenic cocci, making them especially problematic in hospitals and during outbreaks of certain diseases. [40] Disease-causing organisms on the outer surface of the housefly may survive for a few hours, but those in the crop or gut can be viable for several days. [34] Usually, too few bacteria are on the external surface of the houseflies (except perhaps for Shigella ) to cause infection, so the main routes to human infection are through the housefly's regurgitation and defecation. [44] A number of bacterial endosymbionts have however been detected in sequence-based identification from whole genome sequences extracted from flies, the greatest numbers being detected in the abdomen. [45]

In the early 20th century, Canadian public health workers believed that the control of houseflies was important in controlling the spread of tuberculosis. A "swat that fly" contest was held for children in Montreal in 1912. [46] Houseflies were targeted in 1916, when a polio epidemic broke out in the eastern United States. The belief that housefly control was the key to disease control continued, with extensive use of insecticidal spraying well until the mid-1950s, declining only after the introduction of Salk's vaccine. [47] In China, Mao Zedong's Four Pests Campaign between 1958 and 1962 exhorted the people to catch and kill houseflies, along with rats, mosquitoes, and sparrows. [48]

In warfare

Philadelphia Department of Health poster warning the public of housefly hazards (c. 1942) Fly bomber Philadelphia.png
Philadelphia Department of Health poster warning the public of housefly hazards (c. 1942)

During the Second World War, the Japanese worked on entomological warfare techniques under Shirō Ishii. Japanese Yagi bombs developed at Pingfan consisted of two compartments, one with houseflies and another with a bacterial slurry that coated the houseflies prior to release. Vibrio cholerae , which causes cholera, was the bacterium of choice, and was used by Japan against the Chinese in Baoshan in 1942, and in northern Shandong in 1943. The Baoshan bombing produced epidemics that killed 60,000 people in the initial stages, reaching a radius of 200 kilometres (120 mi) which finally took a toll of 200,000 victims. The Shandong attack killed 210,000; the occupying Japanese troops had been vaccinated in advance. [49]

In waste management

The ability of housefly larvae to feed and develop in a wide range of decaying organic matter is important for recycling of nutrients in nature. This could be exploited to combat ever-increasing amounts of waste. [50] Housefly larvae can be mass-reared in a controlled manner in animal manure, reducing the bulk of waste and minimizing environmental risks of its disposal. [51] [52] Harvested maggots may be used as feed for animal nutrition. [52] [53]

Control

Detail of a 1742 painting by Frans van der Mijn that uses a housefly in a Renaissance allegory of touch theme Detail with fly 1742.png
Detail of a 1742 painting by Frans van der Mijn that uses a housefly in a Renaissance allegory of touch theme

Houseflies can be controlled, at least to some extent, by physical, chemical, or biological means. Physical controls include screening with small mesh or the use of vertical strips of plastic or strings of beads in doorways to prevent entry of houseflies into buildings. Fans to create air movement or air barriers in doorways can deter houseflies from entering, and food premises often use fly-killing devices; sticky fly papers hanging from the ceiling are effective, [44] but electric "bug zappers" should not be used directly above food-handling areas because of scattering of contaminated insect parts. [54] Another approach is the elimination as far as possible of potential breeding sites. Keeping garbage in lidded containers and collecting it regularly and frequently, prevents any eggs laid from developing into adults. Unhygienic rubbish tips are a prime housefly-breeding site, but if garbage is covered by a layer of soil, preferably daily, this can be avoided. [44]

Insecticides can be used. Larvicides kill the developing larvae, but large quantities may need to be used to reach areas below the surface. Aerosols can be used in buildings to "zap" houseflies, but outside applications are only temporarily effective. Residual sprays on walls or resting sites have a longer-lasting effect. [44] Many strains of housefly have become immune to the most commonly used insecticides. [55] [56] Resistance to carbamates and organophosphates is conferred by variation in acetylcholinesterase genes. [57] M. domestica has achieved a high degree of resistance. Resistance monitoring is vital to avoid continued use of ineffective active ingredients such as found in the notably severe example of Freeman et al 2019 in Kansas and Maryland, USA. [58]

Several means of biological pest control have been investigated. These include the introduction of another species, the black soldier fly (Hermetia illucens), whose larvae compete with those of the housefly for resources. [59] The introduction of dung beetles to churn up the surface of a manure heap and render it unsuitable for breeding is another approach. [59] Augmentative biological control by releasing parasitoids can be used, but houseflies breed so fast that the natural enemies are unable to keep up. [60]

In science

William Blake's illustration of "The Fly" in Songs of Innocence and of Experience (1794) Songs of Innocence and of Experience copy F object 48 THE FLY 1794.jpg
William Blake's illustration of "The Fly" in Songs of Innocence and of Experience (1794)

The ease of culturing houseflies, and the relative ease of handling them when compared to the fruit fly Drosophila , have made them useful as model organism for use in laboratories. The American entomologist Vincent Dethier, in his humorous To Know A Fly (1962), pointed out that as a laboratory animal, houseflies did not trouble anyone sensitive to animal cruelty. Houseflies have a small number of chromosomes, haploid 6 or diploid 12. [15] : 96  Because the somatic tissue of the housefly consists of long-lived postmitotic cells, it can be used as an informative model system for understanding cumulative age-related cellular alterations. Oxidative DNA damage 8-hydroxydeoxyguanosine in houseflies was found in one study to increase with age and reduce life expectancy supporting the hypothesis that oxidative molecular damage is a causal factor in senescence (aging). [61] [62] [63]

The housefly is an object of biological research, partly for its variable sex-determination mechanism. Although a wide variety of sex-determination mechanisms exists in nature (e.g. male and female heterogamy, haplodiploidy, environmental factors), the way sex is determined is usually fixed within a species. The housefly is, however, thought to exhibit multiple mechanisms for sex determination, such as male heterogamy (like most insects and mammals), female heterogamy (like birds), and maternal control over offspring sex. This is because a male-determining gene (Mdmd) can be found on most or all housefly chromosomes. [64] Sexual differentiation is controlled, as in other insects, by an ancient developmental switch, doublesex, which is regulated by the transformer protein in many different insects. [65] Mdmd causes male development by negatively regulating transformer. There is also a female-determining allele of transformer that is not sensitive to the negative regulation of Mdmd. [66]

The antimicrobial peptides produced by housefly maggots are of pharmacological interest. [67]

In the 1970s, the aircraft modeler Frank Ehling constructed miniature balsa-wood aircraft powered by live houseflies. [68] Studies of tethered houseflies have helped in the understanding of insect vision, sensory perception, and flight control. [69]

In literature

The Impertinent Insect is a group of five fables, sometimes ascribed to Aesop, concerning an insect, in one version a fly, which puffs itself up to seem important. In the Biblical fourth plague of Egypt, flies represent death and decay, while the Philistine god Beelzebub's name may mean "lord of the flies". [70] In Greek mythology, Myiagros was a god who chased away flies during the sacrifices to Zeus and Athena; Zeus sent a fly to bite Pegasus, causing Bellerophon to fall back to Earth when he attempted to ride the winged steed to Mount Olympus. [71] In the traditional Navajo religion, Big Fly is an important spirit being. [72] [73] [74]

William Blake's 1794 poem "The Fly", part of his collection Songs of Experience , deals with the insect's mortality, subject to uncontrollable circumstances, just like humans. [75] Emily Dickinson's 1855 poem "I Heard a Fly Buzz When I Died" speaks of flies in the context of death. [76] In William Golding's 1954 novel Lord of the Flies , the fly is, however, a symbol of the children involved. [77]

Ogden Nash's humorous two-line 1942 poem "God in His wisdom made the fly/And then forgot to tell us why." indicates the debate about the value of biodiversity, given that even those considered by humans as pests have their place in the world's ecosystems. [78]

Related Research Articles

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Forensic entomology</span> Application of insect and other arthropod biology to forensics

Forensic entomology is a field of forensic science that uses insects found on corpses to help solve criminal cases. This includes the study of insect types commonly associated with cadavers, their respective life cycles, their ecological presences in a given environment, as well as the changes in insect assemblage with the progression of decomposition. Insect succession patterns are identified based on the time a given species of insect spends in a given developmental stage, and how many generations have been produced since the insects introduction to a given food source. Insect development alongside environmental data such as temperature and vapor density, can be used to estimate the time since death, due to the fact that flying insects are attracted to a body immediately after death, determine any possible movement of the body after death, and the determination of antemortem trauma. The identification of postmortem interval to aid in death investigations is the primary scope of this scientific field. However, forensic entomology is not limited to homicides, it has also been used in cases of neglect and abuse, in toxicology contexts to detect the presence of drugs, and in dry shelf food contamination incidents. Equally, insect assemblages present on a body, can be used to approximate a given location, as certain insects may be unique to certain areas. Therefore, forensic entomology can be divided into three subfields: urban, stored-product and medico-legal/medico-criminal entomology.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Fly</span> Order of insects

Flies are insects of the order Diptera, the name being derived from the Greek δι- di- "two", and πτερόν pteron "wing". Insects of this order use only a single pair of wings to fly, the hindwings having evolved into advanced mechanosensory organs known as halteres, which act as high-speed sensors of rotational movement and allow dipterans to perform advanced aerobatics. Diptera is a large order containing an estimated 1,000,000 species including horse-flies, crane flies, hoverflies, mosquitoes and others, although only about 125,000 species have been described.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Maggot</span> Larva of a fly

A maggot is the larva of a fly ; it is applied in particular to the larvae of Brachycera flies, such as houseflies, cheese flies, and blowflies, rather than larvae of the Nematocera, such as mosquitoes and crane flies.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Apple maggot</span> Species of fly

The apple maggot, also known as the railroad worm, is a species of fruit fly, and a pest of several types of fruits, especially apples. This species evolved about 150 years ago through a sympatric shift from the native host hawthorn to the domesticated apple species Malus domestica in the northeastern United States. This fly is believed to have been accidentally spread to the western United States from the endemic eastern United States region through contaminated apples at multiple points throughout the 20th century. The apple maggot uses Batesian mimicry as a method of defense, with coloration resembling that of the forelegs and pedipalps of a jumping spider.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Myiasis</span> Infestation of parasitic maggots

Myiasis, also known as flystrike or fly strike, is the parasitic infestation of the body of a live animal by fly larvae (maggots) that grow inside the host while feeding on its tissue. Although flies are most commonly attracted to open wounds and urine- or feces-soaked fur, some species can create an infestation even on unbroken skin and have been known to use moist soil and non-myiatic flies as vector agents for their parasitic larvae.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Histeridae</span> Family of beetles

Histeridae is a family of beetles commonly known as clown beetles or hister beetles. This very diverse group of beetles contains 3,900 species found worldwide. They can be easily identified by their shortened elytra that leaves two of the seven tergites exposed, and their geniculate (elbowed) antennae with clubbed ends. These predatory feeders are most active at night and will fake death if they feel threatened. This family of beetles will occupy almost any kind of niche throughout the world. Hister beetles have proved useful during forensic investigations to help in time of death estimation. Also, certain species are used in the control of livestock pests that infest dung and to control houseflies. Because they are predacious and will even eat other hister beetles, they must be isolated when collected.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Common green bottle fly</span> Species of insect

The common green bottle fly is a blowfly found in most areas of the world and is the most well-known of the numerous green bottle fly species. Its body is 10–14 mm (0.39–0.55 in) in length – slightly larger than a house fly – and has brilliant, metallic, blue-green or golden coloration with black markings. It has short, sparse, black bristles (setae) and three cross-grooves on the thorax. The wings are clear with light brown veins, and the legs and antennae are black. The larvae of the fly may be used for maggot therapy, are commonly used in forensic entomology, and can be the cause of myiasis in livestock and pets. The common green bottle fly emerges in the spring for mating.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Stable fly</span> Species of fly

Stomoxys calcitrans is commonly called the stable fly, barn fly, biting house fly, dog fly, or power mower fly. Unlike most members of the family Muscidae, Stomoxys calcitrans and others of its genus suck blood from mammals. Now found worldwide, the species is considered to be of Eurasian origin.

<i>Eristalis tenax</i> Species of fly

Eristalis tenax, the common drone fly, is a common, migratory, cosmopolitan species of hover fly. It is the most widely distributed syrphid species in the world, and is known from all regions except the Antarctic. It has been introduced into North America and is widely established. It can be found in gardens and fields in Europe and Australia. It has also been found in the Himalayas.

<i>Hermetia illucens</i> Common and widespread fly of the family Stratiomyidae

Hermetia illucens, the black soldier fly, is a common and widespread fly of the family Stratiomyidae. Since the late 20th century, H. illucens has increasingly been gaining attention because of its usefulness for recycling organic waste and generating animal feed.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Lesser house fly</span> Species of fly

The lesser house fly, commonly known as little house fly, is a species of fly. It is somewhat smaller than the common housefly and is best known for its habit of entering buildings and flying in jagged patterns in the middle of a room. It is slender, and the median vein in the wing is straight. Larvae feed on all manner of decaying organic matter, including carrion.

Habronema muscae is an internal stomach parasite that is most commonly found in horses. It is the most common cause of cutaneous ulcerative granulomas in the horse. It is in genus Habronema.

<i>Haematobia irritans</i> Species of fly

Haematobia irritans, the horn fly, is a small fly. It was first described by Carl Linnaeus in his 1758 10th edition of Systema Naturae. It is of the genus Haematobia which is the European genus of bloodsucking flies. Haematobia irritans is a native of Europe but has been introduced to North America and is considered a potentially dangerous livestock pest.

<i>Musca autumnalis</i> Species of fly

Musca autumnalis, the face fly or autumn housefly, is a pest of cattle and horses.

Entomological evidence is legal evidence in the form of insects or related artifacts and is a field of study in forensic entomology. Such evidence is used particularly in medicolegal and medicocriminal applications due to the consistency of insects and arthropods in detecting decomposition quickly. Insect evidence is customarily used to determine post-mortem interval (PMI) but can also be used as evidence of neglect or abuse. It can indicate how long a person was abused/neglected as well as provide important insights into the amount of bodily care given to the neglected or abused person.

<i>Hydrotaea</i> Genus of flies

Hydrotaea is a genus of insects in the housefly family, Muscidae. They occur in most regions of the world but are more populous in warmer climates. They are often found on feces in summer months, and are therefore generally found in close proximity to livestock. Among the 130 known species in this genus, one of the most commonly recognized is the dump fly.

<i>Calliphora livida</i> Species of fly

Calliphora livida is a member of the family Calliphoridae, the blow flies. This large family includes the genus Calliphora, the "blue bottle flies". This genus is important in the field of forensic entomology because of its value in post-mortem interval estimation.

<i>Delia antiqua</i> Species of insect

Delia antiqua, commonly known as the onion fly, is a cosmopolitan pest of crops. The larvae or maggots feed on onions, garlic, and other bulbous plants.

Hytrosaviridae is a family of double-stranded DNA viruses that infect insects. The name is derived from Hytrosa, sigla from the Greek Hypertrophia for 'hypertrophy' and 'sialoadenitis' for 'salivary gland inflammation.'

<i>Dermestes ater</i> Species of beetle

Dermestes ater is a species of beetle in the family Dermestidae, the skin beetles. It is known commonly as the black larder beetle or incinerator beetle. It is native to North America, but today it is found nearly worldwide. Like several other dermestid beetles, this species is a common pest of stored products.

References

  1. ↑ "Appendix C: The State Emblem of India (Prohibition of Improper Use) Act, 2005". Righteous Republic. Harvard University Press. 2012. p. 257. doi:10.4159/harvard.9780674067288.c9. ISBN   978-0-674-06728-8.
  2. ↑ Bryant EH (September 1977). "Morphometric adaptation of the housefly, Musca domestica L., in the United States". Evolution; International Journal of Organic Evolution. 31 (3): 580–596. doi:10.1111/j.1558-5646.1977.tb01046.x. PMID   28563484. S2CID   42268993.
  3. ↑ Alves SM, Bélo M (August 2002). "Morphometric variations in the housefly, Musca domestica (L.) with latitude". Genetica. 115 (3): 243–251. doi:10.1023/a:1020685727460. PMID   12440563. S2CID   230309.
  4. 1 2 3 4 Hewitt CG (2011). The House-Fly: Musca domestica Linn: Its Structure, Habits, Development, Relation to Disease and Control. Cambridge University Press. pp. 5–6. ISBN   978-0-521-23299-9.
  5. ↑ Johnston I (15 September 2013). "Q. Why is it so hard to swat a housefly? A. It sees you coming in slow motion". The Independent. Retrieved 4 December 2017.
  6. ↑ Healy K, McNally L, Ruxton GD, Cooper N, Jackson AL (October 2013). "Metabolic rate and body size are linked with perception of temporal information". Animal Behaviour. 86 (4): 685–696. doi:10.1016/j.anbehav.2013.06.018. PMC   3791410 . PMID   24109147.
  7. ↑ Gullan PJ, Cranston PS (2010). The Insects: An Outline of Entomology (4th ed.). Wiley. pp.  41, 519. ISBN   978-1-118-84615-5.
  8. 1 2 Mehlhorn H (2001). Encyclopedic Reference of Parasitology: Biology, Structure, Function. Springer Science & Business Media. p. 310. ISBN   978-3-540-66819-0.
  9. ↑ Dessì G (8 January 2017). "Morphology and anatomy of adults: Mouthparts". Flies. Retrieved 27 September 2017.
  10. ↑ Deonier CC, Richardson CH (1935). "The Tarsal Chemoreceptor Response of the Housefly, Musca Domestica L., to Sucrose and Levulose". Annals of the Entomological Society of America. 28 (4): 467–474. doi:10.1093/aesa/28.4.467.
  11. ↑ Ray CC (17 December 2002). "Q&A; Gleeful Flies?". The New York Times. Retrieved 4 December 2017.
  12. ↑ Gorb SN (2005). "Uncovering Insect Stickiness: Structure and Properties of Hairy Attachment Devices". American Entomologist. 51 (1): 31–35. doi: 10.1093/ae/51.1.31 .
  13. 1 2 Dahlem GA (2009). "House Fly (Musca domestica)". In Resh VH, Carde RT (eds.). Encyclopedia of Insects (2nd ed.). Elsevier. pp. 469–470.
  14. 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 Sanchez-Arroyo H, Capinera JL (20 April 2017). "House fly: Musca domestica". Featured Creatures. Retrieved 20 September 2017.
  15. 1 2 3 West LS (1951). The Housefly. Its natural history, medical importance, and control (PDF). New York: Comstock Publishing Company.
  16. ↑ Paterson HE (2009). "The Musca domestica complex in Sri Lanka". Journal of Entomology Series B, Taxonomy. 43 (2): 247–259. doi:10.1111/j.1365-3113.1975.tb00134.x.
  17. ↑ Tumrasvin W, Shinonaga S (1977). "Report of Species Belonging to the Genus Musca Linné, Including the Taxonomic Key (Diptera: Muscidae)" (PDF). Bull. Tokyo Med. Dent. Univ. 24: 209–218.
  18. ↑ Wiegmann BM, Yeates DK, Thorne JL, Kishino H (December 2003). "Time flies, a new molecular time-scale for brachyceran fly evolution without a clock". Systematic Biology. 52 (6): 745–756. doi: 10.1093/sysbio/52.6.745 . PMID   14668115.
  19. ↑ Marquez JG, Krafsur ES (July 2002). "Gene flow among geographically diverse housefly populations (Musca domestica L.): a worldwide survey of mitochondrial diversity". The Journal of Heredity. 93 (4): 254–259. doi: 10.1093/jhered/93.4.254 . PMID   12407211.
  20. ↑ Pont AC (1981). "The Linnaean species of the families Fanniidae, Anthomyiidae and Muscidae (Insecta: Diptera)". Biological Journal of the Linnean Society. 15 (2): 165–175. doi: 10.1111/j.1095-8312.1981.tb00756.x .
  21. ↑ Thom C, Gilley DC, Hooper J, Esch HE (September 2007). "The scent of the waggle dance". PLOS Biology. 5 (9): e228. doi: 10.1371/journal.pbio.0050228 . PMC   1994260 . PMID   17713987.
  22. ↑ "(Z)-9-Tricosene (103201) Fact Sheet" (PDF). United States Environmental Protection Agency . Retrieved 8 December 2017.
  23. ↑ Murvosh CM, Fye RL, LaBrecque GC (1964). "Studies on the mating behavior of the house fly, Musca domestica L.". Ohio Journal of Science. 64 (4): 264–271. hdl:1811/5017.
  24. ↑ Jiang Y, Lei C, Niu C, Fang Y, Xiao C, Zhang Z (October 2002). "Semiochemicals from ovaries of gravid females attract ovipositing female houseflies, Musca domestica". Journal of Insect Physiology. 48 (10): 945–950. doi:10.1016/s0022-1910(02)00162-2. PMID   12770041.
  25. ↑ Larraín P, Salas C, Salas F (2008). "House fly (Musca domestica L.) (Diptera: Muscidae) development in different types of manure [Desarrollo de la Mosca Doméstica (Musca domestica L.) (Díptera: Muscidae) en Distintos Tipos de Estiércol]". Chilean Journal of Agricultural Research. 68 (2): 192–197. doi: 10.4067/S0718-58392008000200009 . ISSN   0718-5839.
  26. ↑ Lam K, Thu K, Tsang M, Moore M, Gries G (September 2009). "Bacteria on housefly eggs, Musca domestica, suppress fungal growth in chicken manure through nutrient depletion or antifungal metabolites". Die Naturwissenschaften. 96 (9): 1127–1132. Bibcode:2009NW.....96.1127L. doi:10.1007/s00114-009-0574-1. PMID   19636523. S2CID   187752.
  27. ↑ "Where do flies go in winter?". BBC Earth. 10 February 2015. Retrieved 23 September 2017.
  28. ↑ "House flies". Cornell University: Department of Entomology. 2017. Retrieved 23 September 2017.
  29. ↑ Ho TM (November 1990). "Phoretic association between Macrocheles muscaedomesticae (Acari: Macrochelidae) and flies inhabiting poultry manure in Peninsular Malaysia". Experimental & Applied Acarology. 10 (1): 61–68. doi:10.1007/BF01193974. PMID   2279455. S2CID   25307344.
  30. ↑ Christophoryova J, Stloukal E, Stloukalova V (2011). "First record of phoresy of pseudoscorpion Lamprochernes chyszeri in Slovakia (Pseudoscorpiones: Chernetidae)" (PDF). Folia Faunistica Slovaca. 16 (3): 139–142.
  31. ↑ Roy HE, Steinkraus DC, Eilenberg J, Hajek AE, Pell JK (2006). "Bizarre interactions and endgames: entomopathogenic fungi and their arthropod hosts". Annual Review of Entomology. 51: 331–357. doi:10.1146/annurev.ento.51.110104.150941. PMID   16332215.
  32. ↑ Hewitt CG (2011). The House-Fly: Musca Domestica Linn: Its Structure, Habits, Development, Relation to Disease and Control. Cambridge University Press. pp. 181–184. ISBN   978-0-521-23299-9.
  33. ↑ Prompiboon P, Lietze VU, Denton JS, Geden CJ, Steenberg T, Boucias DG (February 2010). "Musca domestica salivary gland hypertrophy virus, a globally distributed insect virus that infects and sterilizes female houseflies". Applied and Environmental Microbiology. 76 (4): 994–998. Bibcode:2010ApEnM..76..994P. doi:10.1128/AEM.02424-09. PMC   2820963 . PMID   20023109.
  34. 1 2 "Houseflies" (PDF). World Health Organization . Retrieved 25 September 2017.
  35. ↑ Hussein M, Pillai VV, Goddard JM, Park HG, Kothapalli KS, Ross DA, et al. (2017). "Sustainable production of housefly (Musca domestica) larvae as a protein-rich feed ingredient by utilizing cattle manure". PLOS ONE. 12 (2): e0171708. Bibcode:2017PLoSO..1271708H. doi: 10.1371/journal.pone.0171708 . PMC   5295707 . PMID   28170420.
  36. ↑ Ai H, Wang F, Xia Y, Chen X, Lei C (May 2012). "Antioxidant, antifungal and antiviral activities of chitosan from the larvae of housefly, Musca domestica L". Food Chemistry. 132 (1): 493–498. doi:10.1016/j.foodchem.2011.11.033. PMID   26434321.
  37. ↑ Connor S (2006). Fly . Reaktion Books. pp.  20, 27. ISBN   978-1861892942.
  38. ↑ "Fly Pendants and Cylindrical and Spherical Beads, ca. 1539–1292 B.C.E. Gold, lapis lazuli, Length: 9 11/16 in. (24.6 cm). Brooklyn Museum, Charles Edwin Wilbour Fund, 08.480.198" . Retrieved 8 December 2017.
  39. ↑ Nazni WA, Luke H, Wan Rozita WM, Abdullah AG, Sa'diyah I, Azahari AH, et al. (June 2005). "Determination of the flight range and dispersal of the house fly, Musca domestica (L.) using mark release recapture technique". Tropical Biomedicine. 22 (1): 53–61. PMID   16880754.
  40. 1 2 Szalanski AL, Owens CB, McKay T, Steelman CD (September 2004). "Detection of Campylobacter and Escherichia coli O157:H7 from filth flies by polymerase chain reaction". Medical and Veterinary Entomology. 18 (3): 241–246. CiteSeerX   10.1.1.472.8821 . doi:10.1111/j.0269-283X.2004.00502.x. PMID   15347391. S2CID   15788942.
  41. ↑ Ostrolenk M, Welch H (May 1942). "The House Fly as a Vector of Food Poisoning Organisms in Food Producing Establishments". American Journal of Public Health and the Nation's Health. 32 (5): 487–494. doi:10.2105/ajph.32.5.487. PMC   1526899 . PMID   18015612.
  42. ↑ Levine OS, Levine MM (1991). "Houseflies (Musca domestica) as mechanical vectors of shigellosis". Reviews of Infectious Diseases. 13 (4): 688–696. doi:10.1093/clinids/13.4.688. PMID   1925289.
  43. ↑ Förster M, Klimpel S, Sievert K (March 2009). "The house fly (Musca domestica) as a potential vector of metazoan parasites caught in a pig-pen in Germany". Veterinary Parasitology. 160 (1–2): 163–167. doi:10.1016/j.vetpar.2008.10.087. PMID   19081196.
  44. 1 2 3 4 Service M (2008). Medical Entomology for Students. Cambridge University Press. pp. 140–141. ISBN   978-0-521-70928-6.
  45. ↑ Junqueira AC, Ratan A, Acerbi E, Drautz-Moses DI, Premkrishnan BN, Costea PI, et al. (November 2017). "The microbiomes of blowflies and houseflies as bacterial transmission reservoirs". Scientific Reports. 7 (1): 16324. Bibcode:2017NatSR...716324J. doi:10.1038/s41598-017-16353-x. PMC   5701178 . PMID   29176730.
  46. ↑ Minnett V, Poutanen M (2007). "Swatting flies for health: Children and tuberculosis in early twentieth-century Montreal" (PDF). Urban History Review. 36 (1): 32–44. doi: 10.7202/1015818ar .
  47. ↑ Cirillo VJ (2016). ""I am the baby killer!" House flies and the spread of polio". American Entomologist. 62 (2): 83. doi:10.1093/ae/tmw039.
  48. ↑ "Eliminate the Four Pests". chineseposters.net. 1958. Retrieved 7 December 2017.
  49. ↑ Lockwood JA (2012). "Insects as weapons of war, terror, and torture". Annual Review of Entomology. 57: 205–227. doi:10.1146/annurev-ento-120710-100618. PMID   21910635.
  50. ↑ Miller BF, Teotia JS, Thatcher TO (March 1974). "Digestion of poultry manure by Musca domestica". British Poultry Science. 15 (2): 231–234. doi:10.1080/00071667408416100. PMID   4447887.
  51. ↑ Čičková H, Pastor B, Kozánek M, Martínez-Sánchez A, Rojo S, Takáč P (2012). "Biodegradation of pig manure by the housefly, Musca domestica: a viable ecological strategy for pig manure management". PLOS ONE. 7 (3): e32798. Bibcode:2012PLoSO...732798C. doi: 10.1371/journal.pone.0032798 . PMC   3303781 . PMID   22431982.
  52. 1 2 Zhu FX, Wang WP, Hong CL, Feng MG, Xue ZY, Chen XY, et al. (July 2012). "Rapid production of maggots as feed supplement and organic fertilizer by the two-stage composting of pig manure". Bioresource Technology. 116: 485–491. Bibcode:2012BiTec.116..485Z. doi:10.1016/j.biortech.2012.04.008. PMID   22541952.
  53. ↑ Hwangbo J, Hong EC, Jang A, Kang HK, Oh JS, Kim BW, Park BS (July 2009). "Utilization of house fly-maggots, a feed supplement in the production of broiler chickens". Journal of Environmental Biology. 30 (4): 609–614. PMID   20120505.
  54. ↑ "Insect Control Devices, Design and Installation". FDA Food Code 2017. U.S. Food and Drug Administration. 2017. Retrieved 18 June 2019.
  55. ↑ Georghiou GP, Hawley MK (1971). "Insecticide resistance resulting from sequential selection of houseflies in the field by organophosphorus compounds". Bulletin of the World Health Organization. 45 (1): 43–51. PMC   2427889 . PMID   5316852.
  56. ↑ Keiding J (1975). "Problems of housefly (Musca domestica) control due to multiresistance to insesticides". Journal of Hygiene, Epidemiology, Microbiology, and Immunology. 19 (3): 340–355. PMID   52667.
  57. ↑ Walsh SB, Dolden TA, Moores GD, Kristensen M, Lewis T, Devonshire AL, Williamson MS (October 2001). "Identification and characterization of mutations in housefly (Musca domestica) acetylcholinesterase involved in insecticide resistance". The Biochemical Journal. 359 (Pt 1). Portland Press Ltd.: 175–181. doi:10.1042/bj3590175. PMC   1222133 . PMID   11563981.
  58. ↑ Gerry, Alec C. (15 October 2020). Owen, Jeb (ed.). "Review of Methods to Monitor House Fly (Musca domestica) Abundance and Activity". Journal of Economic Entomology . 113 (6). Entomological Society of America (OUP): 2571–2580. doi:10.1093/jee/toaa229. ISSN   0022-0493. PMID   33057651.
  59. 1 2 DeBach P, Rosen D (1991). Biological Control by Natural Enemies. CUP Archive. p. 348. ISBN   978-0-521-39191-7.
  60. ↑ Capinera JL (2008). Encyclopedia of Entomology. Springer Science & Business Media. p. 1880. ISBN   978-1-4020-6242-1.
  61. ↑ Agarwal S, Sohal RS (December 1994). "DNA oxidative damage and life expectancy in houseflies". Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America. 91 (25): 12332–12335. Bibcode:1994PNAS...9112332A. doi: 10.1073/pnas.91.25.12332 . PMC   45431 . PMID   7991627.
  62. ↑ Holmes GE, Bernstein C, Bernstein H (September 1992). "Oxidative and other DNA damages as the basis of aging: a review". Mutation Research. 275 (3–6): 305–315. doi:10.1016/0921-8734(92)90034-M. PMID   1383772.
  63. ↑ Bernstein H, Payne C, Bernstein C, Garewal H, Dvorak K (2008). "Cancer and Aging as Consequences of Unrepaired DNA Damage". In Kimura H, Suzuki A (eds.). New Research on DNA Damages. New York: Nova Science Publishers. pp. 1–47. ISBN   978-1-60456-581-2. Archived from the original on 25 October 2014. Retrieved 15 August 2013.
  64. ↑ Sharma A, Heinze SD, Wu Y, Kohlbrenner T, Morilla I, Brunner C, et al. (May 2017). "Male sex in houseflies is determined by Mdmd, a paralog of the generic splice factor gene CWC22" (PDF). Science. 356 (6338): 642–645. Bibcode:2017Sci...356..642S. doi:10.1126/science.aam5498. PMID   28495751. S2CID   206656153.
  65. ↑ Verhulst EC, van de Zande L, Beukeboom LW (August 2010). "Insect sex determination: it all evolves around transformer" (PDF). Current Opinion in Genetics & Development. 20 (4): 376–383. doi:10.1016/j.gde.2010.05.001. PMID   20570131. S2CID   205003182.
  66. ↑ Hediger M, Henggeler C, Meier N, Perez R, Saccone G, Bopp D (January 2010). "Molecular characterization of the key switch F provides a basis for understanding the rapid divergence of the sex-determining pathway in the housefly". Genetics. 184 (1): 155–170. doi:10.1534/genetics.109.109249. PMC   2815913 . PMID   19841093.
  67. ↑ Nayduch D, Burrus RG (2017). "Flourishing in Filth: House Fly–Microbe Interactions Across Life History". Annals of the Entomological Society of America. 110: 6–18. doi: 10.1093/aesa/saw083 .
  68. ↑ Hanser K (26 June 2009). "Insect Power". Smithsonian National Air and Space Museum. Retrieved 7 December 2017.
  69. ↑ Huber SA, Franz MO, Bülthoff HH (1999). "On robots and flies: Modeling the visual orientation behavior of flies" (PDF). Robotics and Autonomous Systems. 29 (4): 227–242. doi:10.1016/S0921-8890(99)00055-X.
  70. ↑ "The etymology of Beelzebul has proceeded in several directions. The variant reading Beelzebub (Syriac translators and Jerome) reflects a long-standing tradition of equating Beelzebul with the Philistine deity of the city of Ekron mentioned in 2 Kgs 1:2, 3, 6, 16. Baalzebub (Heb ba˓al zĕbûb) seems to mean "lord of flies" (HALAT, 250, but cf. LXXB baal muian theon akkarōn, "Baal-Fly, god of Akkaron"; Ant 9:2, 1 theon muian).", Lewis, "Beelzebul", in Freedman, D.N. (1996). Vol. 1: The Anchor Yale Bible Dictionary (639). New York: Doubleday.
  71. ↑ Parker R (2011). On Greek Religion . Cornell University Press. pp.  105–106. ISBN   978-0801477355.
  72. ↑ Wyman LC (1983). "Navajo Ceremonial System" (PDF). Handbook of North American Indians. p. 539. Nearly every element in the universe may be thus personalized, and even the least of these such as tiny Chipmunk and those little insect helpers and mentors of deity and man in the myths, Big Fly (Dǫ'soh) and Ripener (Corn Beetle) Girl ('Anilt'ánii 'At'ééd) (Wyman and Bailey 1964:29–30, 51, 137–144), are as necessary for the harmonious balance of the universe as is the great Sun.{{cite book}}: |website= ignored (help)
  73. ↑ Wyman LC, Bailey FL (1964). Navaho Indian Ethnoentomology. Anthropology Series. University of New Mexico Press. ISBN   9780826301109. LCCN   64024356.
  74. ↑ "Native American Fly Mythology". Native Languages of the Americas. Retrieved 8 December 2017.
  75. ↑ Miner P (2011). "Blake's Swedenborgian Fly". Notes and Queries. 58 (4): 530. doi:10.1093/notesj/gjr180.
  76. ↑ Priddy A (2009). Bloom's How to Write about Emily Dickinson. Infobase Publishing. p. 169. ISBN   978-1-4381-1240-4.
  77. ↑ Golding W (2013). Lord of the Flies: Text, Criticism, Giossary and Notes. Al Manhal. p. 8. ISBN   9796500118451.
  78. ↑ Henschel JR (2015). Toktok Talkie: Ancient Mariner to Zophosis Moralesi. Wordweaver Publishing House. p. 6. ISBN   978-99945-82-04-4. Ogden Nash was neither the first nor the last person to puzzle about the value of the fly, not only because flies are frequently considered a nuisance, but also because biodiversity in general is a puzzle. Nash's question can also be interpreted as going to the heart of conservation
This page is based on this Wikipedia article
Text is available under the CC BY-SA 4.0 license; additional terms may apply.
Images, videos and audio are available under their respective licenses.