Hydnum repandum

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Hydnum repandum
Hedgehog fungi2.jpg
Scientific classification OOjs UI icon edit-ltr.svg
Domain: Eukaryota
Kingdom: Fungi
Division: Basidiomycota
Class: Agaricomycetes
Order: Cantharellales
Family: Hydnaceae
Genus: Hydnum
Species:
H. repandum
Binomial name
Hydnum repandum
L. (1753) [1]
Synonyms [2]
Hydnum repandum
Information icon.svg
Teeth icon.png Teeth on hymenium
Depressed cap icon.svg Cap is depressed
Decurrent gills icon2.svg Hymenium is decurrent
Bare stipe icon.svg Stipe is bare
Transparent spore print icon.svg
Transparent spore print icon.svg
 Spore print is white to cream
Mycorrhizal fungus.svgEcology is mycorrhizal
Mycomorphbox Choice.pngEdibility is choice

Hydnum repandum, commonly known as the sweet tooth, pig's trotter, [7] wood hedgehog or hedgehog mushroom, is a basidiomycete fungus of the family Hydnaceae. First described by Carl Linnaeus in 1753, it is the type species of the genus Hydnum . The fungus produces fruit bodies (mushrooms) that are characterized by their spore-bearing structures—in the form of spines rather than gills—which hang down from the underside of the cap. The cap is dry, colored yellow to light orange to brown, and often develops an irregular shape, especially when it has grown closely crowded with adjacent fruit bodies. The mushroom tissue is white with a pleasant odor and a spicy or bitter taste. All parts of the mushroom stain orange with age or when bruised.

Contents

A mycorrhizal fungus, Hydnum repandum is broadly distributed in Europe [8] where it fruits singly or in close groups in coniferous or deciduous woodland. [9] [10] This is a choice edible species, although mature specimens can develop a bitter taste. It has no poisonous lookalikes.

Taxonomy

First officially described by Carl Linnaeus in his 1753 Species Plantarum , Hydnum repandum was sanctioned by Swedish mycologist Elias Fries in 1821. [11] The species has been shuffled among several genera: Hypothele by French naturalist Jean-Jacques Paulet in 1812; Dentinum by British botanist Samuel Frederick Gray in 1821; Tyrodon by Finnish mycologist Petter Karsten in 1881; Sarcodon by French naturalist Lucien Quélet in 1886. [2] After a 1977 nomenclatural proposal by American mycologist Ronald H. Petersen [12] was accepted, Hydnum repandum became the official type species of the genus Hydnum. Previously, supporting arguments for making H. repandum the type were made by Dutch taxonomist Marinus Anton Donk (1958) [13] and Petersen (1973), [14] while Czech mycologist Zdeněk Pouzar (1958) [15] and Canadian mycologist Kenneth Harrison (1971) thought that H. imbricatum should be the type. [16]

Several forms and varieties of H. repandum have been described. Forms albidum and rufescens, found in Russia, were published by T.L. Nikolajeva in 1961; [17] the latter taxon is synonymous with H. rufescens . [18] Form amarum, published from Slovenia by Zlata Stropnik, Bogdan Tratnik and Garbrijel Seljak in 1988, [19] is illegitimate as per article 36.1 of the International Code of Nomenclature for algae, fungi, and plants, as it was not given a sufficiently comprehensive description. French botanist Jean-Baptiste Barla described H. repandum var. rufescens in 1859. [20] English naturalist Carleton Rea described the white-fruit bodied version as a variety—H. repandum var. album—in 1922. [21]

Molecular studies have shown that the current species concept for H. repandum needed revision as there was a poor overlap between morphological and molecular species concepts. A 2009 phylogenetic analysis of European specimens, based on internal transcribed spacer and 5.8S DNA sequences, indicated that H. repandum specimens form two distinct clades, whose only consistent morphological distinction is cap size. These genetic differences foreshadowed the presence of undescribed cryptic species, and that the taxon may currently be undergoing intensive speciation. [22] A comprehensive genetic study published in 2016 of members of the genus worldwide found that there are at least four species in the broad concept of H. repandum: two species from southern China, one from Europe and eastern North America, and H. repandum itself from Europe and northern (and alpine southwestern) China and Japan. Although it is missing from Central America, genetic material has been recovered from Venezuela from the tree Pakaraimaea dipterocarpacea , suggesting it somehow migrated there and had changed hosts. [23]

The specific epithet repandum means "bent back", referring to the wavy cap margin. The varietal epithet album means "white as an egg". [24] Hydnum repandum has been given several vernacular names: "sweet tooth", [25] "yellow tooth fungus", [26] "wood urchin", [27] "spreading hedgehog", [28] "hedgehog mushroom", or "pig's trotter". [29] The variety album is known as "white wood". [24]

Description

Detail of the spines Hydnum repandum 78164.jpg
Detail of the spines

The orange-, yellow- or tan-colored pileus (cap) is up to 17 centimetres (6+1⁄2 in) wide, although specimens measuring 25 cm (10 in) have been documented. It is generally somewhat irregular in shape (possibly being convex or concave at maturity), with a wavy margin that is rolled inward when young. [29] Caps grow in a distorted shape when fruit bodies are closely clustered. [30] The cap surface is generally dry and smooth, although mature specimens may show cracking. [29] Viewed from above, the caps of mature specimens resemble somewhat those of chanterelles. [31] The flesh is thick, white, firm, brittle, and bruises yellow to orange-brown. The underside is densely covered with small, slender whitish spines measuring 2–7 mm (1⁄16–1⁄4 in) long. [29] These spines sometimes run down at least one side of the stipe. [27] The stipe, typically 3–10 cm (1–4 in) long and 1–3 cm (1⁄2–1+1⁄4 in) thick, is either white or the same color as the cap, and is sometimes off-center. [29] It is easy to overlook the mushrooms when they are situated amongst gilled mushrooms and boletes, because the cap and stipe are fairly nondescript and the mushrooms must be turned over to reveal their spines. [32] The pure white variety of this species, H. repandum var. album, is smaller than the main variety, with a cap measuring 2–7 cm (1–3 in) wide and a stipe that is 1–3 cm (1⁄2–1+1⁄4 in) long. [24]

The spore print is pale cream. Basidiospores are smooth, thin-walled and hyaline (translucent), roughly spherical to broadly egg-shaped, and measure 5.5–7.5 by 4.5–5.5  μm. They usually contain a single, large refractive oil droplet. The basidia (spore-bearing cells) are club-shaped, four-spored, and measure 30–45 by 6–10 μm. The cap cuticle is a trichodermium (where the outermost hyphae emerge roughly parallel, like hairs, perpendicular to the cap surface) of narrow, club-shaped cells that are 2.5–4 μm wide. Underneath this tissue is the subhymenial layer of interwoven hyphae measuring 10–20 μm in diameter. The spine tissue is made of narrow (2–5 μm diameter), thin-walled hyphae with clamp connections. [27]

At a market in Finland Hrepandummkt.jpg
At a market in Finland

Chemistry

Both H. repandum and the variety album contain the diepoxide compound repandiol (2R,3R,8R,9R)-4,6-decadiyne-2,3:8,9-diepoxy-1,10-diol), which is under laboratory research to determine its possible effects. [33] The volatile organic compounds responsible for the fruity aroma of the mushroom include eight-carbon derivatives, such as 1-octen-3-ol, (E)-2-octenol, and (E)-1,3-octadiene. [34]

European studies conducted after the 1986 Chernobyl disaster showed that the fruit bodies have a high rate of accumulation of the radioactive isotope caesium. [35]

Similar species

North American lookalikes include the white hedgehog ( Hydnum albidum ) and the giant hedgehog ( H. albomagnum ). H. albidum has a white to pale yellowish grey fruit body that bruises yellow to orange. H. albomagnum is large and paler than H. repandum. [36] Hydnum umbilicatum is smaller, with caps measuring 3–5 cm (1–2 in) in diameter, and thinner stipes that are 0.5–1 cm (1⁄4–1⁄2 in) wide. [37] Its caps are umbilicate (with a navel-like cavity), sometimes with a hole in the center of the cap, [30] unlike the flattened or slightly depressed caps of H. repandum. [24] Microscopically, H. umbilicatum has spores that are larger and more elliptical than those of H. repandum, measuring 7.5–9 by 6–7.5 μm. [31] A European lookalike, H. rufescens , is also smaller than H. repandum, and has a deeper apricot to orange color. [38] Hydnum ellipsosporum , described as a new species from Germany in 2004, differs from H. repandum by the shape and length of its spores, which are ellipsoid and measure 9–11 by 6–7.5 μm. Compared to H. repandum, it has smaller fruit bodies, with cap diameters ranging from 3 to 5 cm (1 to 2 in) wide. [39]

Habitat and distribution

Collection from Eggingen, Germany Hydnum repandum semmelstoppelpilz.jpg
Collection from Eggingen, Germany

H. repandum is a mycorrhizal fungus. [30] The fruit bodies grow singly, scattered, or in groups on the ground or in leaf litter in both coniferous and deciduous forests. [29] [38] They can also grow in fairy rings. [40] Fruiting occurs from summer to autumn. [25] The species is widely distributed in Europe, [8] and is one of the most common of the tooth fungi. [29] In Europe, it has been listed as a vulnerable species in the Red Data Lists of the Netherlands, Belgium, and Germany; Sweden lists it as being of Least Concern. [41] H. repandum does not occur in Canada, but two related species do: H. washingtonianum and H. subolympicum . [42]

Uses

Hydnum repandum, dried [43]
Nutritional value per 100 g (3.5 oz)
Energy 1,431 kJ (342 kcal)
56.1 g
Fat
4.3 g
19.7 g
Vitamins Quantity
%DV†
Vitamin C
1%
1.1 mg
Minerals Quantity
%DV†
Calcium
46%
600 mg
Copper
4322%
38.9 mg
Iron
211%
38 mg
Magnesium
55%
230 mg
Manganese
1009%
23.2 mg
Potassium
0%
2.89 mg
Sodium
1%
31.9 mg
Zinc
52%
5.72 mg
†Percentages estimated using US recommendations for adults, [44] except for potassium, which is estimated based on expert recommendation from the National Academies. [45]

Nutrition

Dried H. repandum is 56% carbohydrates, 4% fat, and 20% protein (table). In a 100 gram reference amount, several dietary minerals are high in content, especially copper and manganese. Major fatty acids include palmitate (16%), stearic acid (1%), oleic acid (26%), linoleic acid (48%), and linolenic acid (20%). Mycosterol is present. [46]

Culinary

H. repandum is considered to be a good edible mushroom, having a sweet, nutty taste and a crunchy texture. Some consider it to be the culinary equivalent of the chanterelle. [47] Author Michael Kuo gives it an edibility rating of "great" and notes that there are no poisonous lookalikes, and that H. repandum mushrooms are unlikely to be infested with maggots.

Delicately brushing the cap and stipe of specimens immediately after harvest will help prevent soil from getting lodged between the teeth. H. repandum mushrooms can be cooked by pickling, [48] simmering in milk or stock, and sautéeing, which creates a "tender, meaty texture and a mild flavor." [49] The mushroom tissue absorbs liquids well and assumes the flavors of added ingredients. [49] The firm texture of the cooked mushroom makes it suitable for freezing. Its natural flavor is reportedly similar to the peppery taste of watercress, [32] or oysters. [50] Older specimens may have a bitter taste, but boiling can remove the bitterness. [48] Specimens found under conifers can taste "unpleasantly strong". [51] The form amarum, locally common in Slovakia, is reportedly inedible because its fruit body has a bitter taste at all developmental stages. [19]

Hydnum repandum is frequently sold with chanterelles in Italy, and in France, it is one of the officially recognized edible species sold in markets. [40] In Europe, it is usually sold under its French name pied-de-mouton (sheep's foot). [36] H. repandum mushrooms are also used as a food source by the red squirrel (Sciurus vulgaris). [52]

Related Research Articles

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Cantharellaceae</span> Family of fungi

The Cantharellaceae are a family of fungi in the order Cantharellales. The family contains the chanterelles and related species, a group of fungi that superficially resemble agarics but have smooth, wrinkled, or gill-like hymenophores. Species in the family are ectomycorrhizal, forming a mutually beneficial relationship with the roots of trees and other plants. Many of the Cantharellaceae, including the chanterelle, the Pacific golden chanterelle, the horn of plenty, and the trumpet chanterelle, are not only edible, but are collected and marketed internationally on a commercial scale.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Cantharellales</span> Order of fungi

The Cantharellales are an order of fungi in the class Agaricomycetes. The order includes not only the chanterelles (Cantharellaceae), but also some of the tooth fungi (Hydnaceae), clavarioid fungi, and corticioid fungi (Botryobasidiaceae). Species within the order are variously ectomycorrhizal, saprotrophic, associated with orchids, or facultative plant pathogens. Those of economic importance include edible and commercially collected Cantharellus, Craterellus, and Hydnum species as well as crop pathogens in the genera Ceratobasidium and Thanatephorus/Rhizoctonia.

<i>Hydnum rufescens</i> Species of fungus

Hydnum rufescens, commonly known as the terracotta hedgehog, is an edible basidiomycete of the family Hydnaceae. It belongs to the small group of mushrooms often referred to as the tooth fungi, which produce fruit bodies whose cap undersurfaces are covered by hymenophores resembling spines or teeth, and not pores or gills.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Hydnellum peckii</span> Species of fungus

Hydnellum peckii is a fungus in the genus Hydnellum of the family Bankeraceae. It is a hydnoid species, producing spores on the surface of vertical spines or tooth-like projections that hang from the undersurface of the fruit bodies. It is found in North America, Europe, and was recently discovered in Iran (2008) and Korea (2010). Hydnellum peckii is a mycorrhizal species, and forms mutually beneficial relationships with a variety of coniferous trees, growing on the ground singly, scattered, or in fused masses.

<i>Cortinarius caperatus</i> Species of fungus

Cortinarius caperatus is an edible mushroom of the genus Cortinarius found in northern regions of Europe and North America. It was known as Rozites caperata for many years before genetic studies revealed that it belonged to the genus Cortinarius. The fruit bodies appear in autumn in coniferous and beech woods as well as heathlands in late summer and autumn. The ochre-coloured cap is up to 10 cm (4 in) across and has a fibrous surface. The clay-colored gills are attached to the stipe under the cap, and the stipe is whitish with a whitish ring. The Latin specific name, caperatus, means wrinkled, and refers to the distinctive texture of the cap. The flesh has a mild smell and flavor.

<i>Turbinellus floccosus</i> Species of fungus of the family Gomphaceae native to Asia and North America

Turbinellus floccosus, commonly known as the scaly vase, or sometimes the shaggy, scaly, or woolly chanterelle, is a cantharelloid mushroom of the family Gomphaceae native to Asia and North America. It was known as Gomphus floccosus until 2011, when it was found to be only distantly related to the genus's type species, G. clavatus. It was consequently transferred from Gomphus to Turbinellus. The orange-capped vase- or trumpet-shaped fruiting bodies may reach 30 cm (12 in) high and 30 cm (12 in) wide. The lower surface, the hymenium, is covered in wrinkles and ridges rather than gills or pores, and is pale buff or yellowish to whitish.

<i>Sarcodon imbricatus</i> Species of fungus

Sarcodon imbricatus, commonly known as the shingled hedgehog or scaly hedgehog, is a species of tooth fungus in the order Thelephorales. The mushroom is edible. Many sources report it has a bitter taste, but others have found it delicious and suspect that the bitter specimens may be similar related species. The mushroom has a large, brownish cap with large brown scales and may reach 30 cm (12 in) in diameter. On the underside it sports greyish, brittle teeth instead of gills, and has white flesh. Its spore print is brown. It is associated with spruce (Picea), appearing in autumn. It ranges throughout North America and Europe, although collections from the British Isles are now assigned to the similar species Sarcodon squamosus.

<i>Hydnum</i> Genus of fungi

Hydnum is a genus of fungi in the family Hydnaceae. They are notable for their unusual spore-bearing structures of teeth rather than gills. The best known are the edible species Hydnum repandum and H. rufescens. There are no known toxic varieties of Hydnum. Widely regarded as important maintainers of forest ecosystems, the Hydnum genus is known to have ectomycorrhizal relationships with multiple plant families. Hydnum has many brittle, white teeth from which the spores drop. Some species have teeth which hang from ascending branches, while other species have teeth which project downwards from the undersurfaces of dead wood. Most Hydnum species are safe to eat, and contain many fatty acids and antioxidants.

<i>Russula brevipes</i> Species of fungus

Russula brevipes is a species of mushroom commonly known as the short-stemmed russula or the stubby brittlegill. It is widespread in North America, and was reported from Pakistan in 2006. The fungus grows in a mycorrhizal association with trees from several genera, including fir, spruce, Douglas-fir, and hemlock. Fruit bodies are white and large, with convex to funnel-shaped caps measuring 7–30 cm (3–12 in) wide set atop a thick stipe up to 8 cm (3 in) long. The gills on the cap underside are closely spaced and sometimes have a faint bluish tint. Spores are roughly spherical, and have a network-like surface dotted with warts.

<i>Hydnellum caeruleum</i> Species of fungus

Hydnellum caeruleum, commonly known as the blue-gray hydnellum, blue-green hydnellum, blue spine, blue tooth, or bluish tooth, is an inedible fungus found in North America, Europe, and temperate areas of Asia.

<i>Craterellus tubaeformis</i> Species of fungus

Craterellus tubaeformis is an edible fungus, also known as yellowfoot, winter mushroom, or funnel chanterelle. It was reclassified from Cantharellus, which has been supported by molecular phylogenetics.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Hydnaceae</span> Family of fungi

The Hydnaceae are a family of fungi in the order Cantharellales. Originally the family encompassed all species of fungi that produced basidiocarps having a hymenium consisting of slender, downward-hanging tapering extensions referred to as "spines" or "teeth", whether they were related or not. This artificial but often useful grouping is now more generally called the hydnoid or tooth fungi. In the strict, modern sense, the Hydnaceae are limited to the genus Hydnum and related genera, with basidiocarps having a toothed or poroid hymenium. Species in the family are ectomycorrhizal, forming a mutually beneficial relationship with the roots of trees and other plants. Hydnum repandum is an edible species, commercially collected in some countries and often marketed under the French name pied de mouton.

<i>Phellodon</i> Genus of tooth fungi in the family Bankeraceae

Phellodon is a genus of tooth fungi in the family Bankeraceae. Species have small- to medium-sized fruitbodies with white spines on the underside from which spores are released. All Phellodon have a short stalk or stipe, and so the genus falls into the group known as stipitate hydnoid fungi. The tough and leathery flesh usually has a pleasant, fragrant odor, and develops a cork-like texture when dry. Neighboring fruitbodies can fuse, sometimes producing large mats of joined caps. Phellodon species produce a white spore print, while the individual spores are roughly spherical to ellipsoid in shape, with spiny surfaces.

<i>Hydnellum aurantiacum</i> Species of fungus

Hydnellum aurantiacum is an inedible fungus, commonly known as the orange spine or orange hydnellum for its reddish orange or rusty red colored fruit bodies. Like other tooth fungi, it bears a layer of spines rather than gills on the underside of the cap. Due to substantial declines in sightings, this species is listed as critically endangered in the United Kingdom.

<i>Hydnellum ferrugineum</i> Species of fungus

Hydnellum ferrugineum, commonly known as the mealy tooth or the reddish-brown corky spine fungus, is a species of tooth fungus in the family Bankeraceae. A widely distributed species, it is found in north Africa, Asia, Europe, and North America. The fungus fruits on the ground singly or in clusters in conifer forest, usually in poor or sandy soil. Fruit bodies are somewhat top-shaped, measuring 3–10 cm (1–4 in) in diameter. Their velvety surfaces, initially white to pink, sometimes exude drops of red liquid. The lower surface of the fruit body features white to reddish-brown spines up to 6 mm long. Mature fruit bodies become dark reddish brown in color, and are then difficult to distinguish from other similar Hydnellum species. H. ferrugineum forms a mat of mycelia in the humus and upper soil where it grows. The presence of the fungus changes the characteristics of the soil, making it more podzolized.

<i>Auriscalpium vulgare</i> Inedible European fungi

Auriscalpium vulgare, commonly known as the pinecone mushroom, the cone tooth, or the ear-pick fungus, is a species of fungus in the family Auriscalpiaceae of the order Russulales. It was first described in 1753 by Carl Linnaeus, who included it as a member of the tooth fungi genus Hydnum, but British mycologist Samuel Frederick Gray recognized its uniqueness and in 1821 transferred it to the genus Auriscalpium that he created to contain it. The fungus is widely distributed in Europe, Central America, North America, and temperate Asia. Although common, its small size and nondescript colors lead it to be easily overlooked in the pine woods where it grows. A. vulgare is not generally considered edible because of its tough texture, but some historical literature says it used to be consumed in France and Italy.

<i>Hydnum umbilicatum</i> Species of fungus

Hydnum umbilicatum, commonly known as the depressed hedgehog, is a species of tooth fungus in the family Hydnaceae. It was scientifically described in 1902 from New York by American mycologist Charles Horton Peck. It is found in eastern North America. It is edible and good.

<i>Hydnellum scrobiculatum</i> Species of fungus

Hydnellum scrobiculatum, commonly known as the ridged tooth or rough hydnellum, is a tooth fungus in the family Bankeraceae. Widely distributed in the Northern Hemisphere, it is found in Asia, Europe, and North America.

<i>Phellodon niger</i> Species of fungus

Phellodon niger, commonly known as the black tooth, is a species of tooth fungus in the family Bankeraceae, and the type species of the genus Phellodon. It was originally described by Elias Magnus Fries in 1815 as a species of Hydnum. Petter Karsten included it as one of the original three species when he circumscribed Phellodon in 1881. The fungus is found in Europe and North America, although molecular studies suggest that the North American populations represent a similar but genetically distinct species.

<i>Hydnum ellipsosporum</i> Species of fungus

Hydnum ellipsosporum is a species of fungus in the family Hydnaceae that was described from Germany in 2004. It differs from H. repandum by the shape and length of its spores, which are ellipsoid and measure 9–11 by 6–7.5 μm. Compared to H. repandum, it has smaller fruit bodies, with cap diameters ranging from 3 to 5 cm wide.

References

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  2. 1 2 "Hydnum repandum L. 1753". MycoBank. International Mycological Association. Retrieved 28 September 2012.
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  23. ↑ Feng B, Wang XH, Ratkowsky D, Gates G, Lee SS, Grebenc T, Yang ZL (2016). "Multilocus phylogenetic analyses reveal unexpected abundant diversity and significant disjunct distribution pattern of the Hedgehog Mushrooms (Hydnum L.)". Scientific Reports. 6. 25586. Bibcode:2016NatSR...625586F. doi:10.1038/srep25586. PMC   4858670 . PMID   27151256.
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  42. ↑ Niskanen, Tuula; Liimatainen, Kare; Nuytinck, Jorinde; Kirk, Paul; Ibarguren, Ibai Olariaga; Garibay-Orijel, Roberto; Norvell, Lorelei; Huhtinen, Seppo; Kytövuori, Ilkka; Ruotsalainen, Juhani; Niemelä, Tuomo; Ammirati, Joseph F.; Tedersoo, Leho (2018-09-03). "Identifying and naming the currently known diversity of the genus Hydnum, with an emphasis on European and North American taxa". Mycologia. 110 (5). Informa UK Limited: 890–918. doi:10.1080/00275514.2018.1477004. ISSN   0027-5514.
  43. ↑ Nutritional values are based on chemical analysis of specimens collected from the East Black Sea region in Turkey. Source: Ayaz FA, Torun H, Özel A, Col M, Duran C, Sesli E, Colak A (2011). "Nutritional value of edible wild mushrooms collected from Black Sea region (Turkey)" (PDF). Turkish Journal of Biochemistry. 36 (3): 213–21.
  44. ↑ United States Food and Drug Administration (2024). "Daily Value on the Nutrition and Supplement Facts Labels" . Retrieved 2024-03-28.
  45. ↑ National Academies of Sciences, Engineering, and Medicine; Health and Medicine Division; Food and Nutrition Board; Committee to Review the Dietary Reference Intakes for Sodium and Potassium (2019). Oria, Maria; Harrison, Meghan; Stallings, Virginia A. (eds.). Dietary Reference Intakes for Sodium and Potassium. The National Academies Collection: Reports funded by National Institutes of Health. Washington, DC: National Academies Press (US). ISBN   978-0-309-48834-1. PMID   30844154.
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  50. ↑ Sept JD. (2006). Common Mushrooms of the Northwest: Alaska, Western Canada & the Northwestern United States. Sechelt, British Columbia: Calypso Publishing. p. 67. ISBN   978-0-9739819-0-2.
  51. ↑ Courtecuisse R. (1999). Mushrooms of Britain and Europe. Collins Wildlife Trust guides. London: Harpercollins. p. 325. ISBN   978-0-00-220012-7.
  52. ↑ Grönwall O, Pehrson Å (1984). "Nutrient content in fungi as a primary food of the red squirrel Sciurus vulgaris L". Oecologia. 64 (2): 230–31. Bibcode:1984Oecol..64..230G. doi:10.1007/BF00376875. PMID   28312343. S2CID   28125328.

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