Hypomania

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Hypomania (literally "under mania" or "less than mania") [1] is a mental and behavioral disorder, [2] characterised essentially by an apparently non-contextual elevation of mood (euphoria) that contributes to persistently disinhibited behaviour.

Contents

The individual with the condition may experience irritability, [3] not necessarily less severe than full mania;[ citation needed ] in fact, the presence of marked irritability is a documented feature of hypomanic and mixed episodes in bipolar type II.[ citation needed ] According to DSM-5 criteria, hypomania is distinct from mania in that there is no significant functional impairment; mania, by DSM-5 definition, does include significant functional impairment and may have psychotic features.

Characteristic behaviors of people experiencing hypomania are a notable decrease in the need for sleep, an overall increase in energy, unusual behaviors and actions, and a markedly distinctive increase in talkativeness and confidence, commonly exhibited with a flight of creative ideas. Other symptoms related to this may include feelings of grandiosity, distractibility, and hypersexuality. [4] While hypomanic behavior often generates productivity and excitement, it can become troublesome if the subject engages in risky or otherwise inadvisable behaviors, and/or the symptoms manifest themselves in trouble with everyday life events. [5] When manic episodes are separated into stages of a progression according to symptomatic severity and associated features, hypomania constitutes the first stage of the syndrome, wherein the cardinal features (euphoria or heightened irritability, pressure of speech and activity, increased energy, decreased need for sleep, and flight of ideas) are most plainly evident.

Signs and symptoms

Individuals in a hypomanic state may have a decreased need for sleep, may be extremely gregarious and competitive, and have a great deal of energy. They are, otherwise, often fully functioning (unlike individuals experiencing a manic episode). [6]

Distinctive markers

Specifically, hypomania is distinguished from mania by the absence of psychotic symptoms, and by its lesser degree of impact on functioning. [7] [8]

Hypomania is a feature of bipolar II disorder and cyclothymia, but can also occur in schizoaffective disorder. [8] Hypomania is also a feature of bipolar I disorder; it arises in sequential procession as the mood disorder fluctuates between normal mood (euthymia) and mania. Some individuals with bipolar I disorder have hypomanic as well as manic episodes. Hypomania can also occur when moods progress downwards from a manic mood state to a normal mood. Hypomania is sometimes credited with increasing creativity and productive energy. Numerous people with bipolar disorder have credited hypomania with giving them an edge in their theater of work. [9] [10]

People who experience hyperthymia, or "chronic hypomania", [11] encounter the same symptoms as hypomania but on a longer-term basis. [12]

Associated disorders

Cyclothymia, a condition of continuous mood fluctuations, is characterized by oscillating experiences of hypomania and depression that fail to meet the diagnostic criteria for either manic or major depressive episodes. These periods are often interspersed with periods of relatively normal (euthymic) functioning. [13]

When a patient presents with a history of at least one episode of both hypomania and major depression, each of which meet the diagnostic criteria, bipolar II disorder is diagnosed. In some cases, depressive episodes routinely occur during the fall or winter and hypomanic ones in the spring or summer. In such cases, one speaks of a "seasonal pattern". [14]

If left untreated, and in those so predisposed, hypomania may transition into mania, which may be psychotic, in which case bipolar I disorder is the correct diagnosis. [15]

Causes

Often in those who have experienced their first episode of hypomania – by definition without psychotic features – there may be a long or recent history of depression or a mix of hypomania combined with depression (known as mixed-state) prior to the emergence of manic symptoms. This commonly surfaces in the mid to late teens. Because the teenage years are typically an emotionally charged time of life, it is not unusual for mood swings to be passed off as normal hormonal teen behavior and for a diagnosis of bipolar disorder to be missed until there is evidence of an obvious manic or hypomanic phase. [16]

In cases of drug-induced hypomanic episodes in unipolar depressives, the hypomania can almost invariably be eliminated by lowering medication dosage, withdrawing the drug entirely, or changing to a different medication if discontinuation of treatment is not possible. [17]

Hypomania can be associated with narcissistic personality disorder. [18]

Psychopathology

Mania and hypomania are usually studied together as components of bipolar disorders, and the pathophysiology is usually assumed to be the same. Given that norepinephrine and dopaminergic drugs are capable of triggering hypomania, theories relating to monoamine hyperactivity have been proposed. A theory unifying depression and mania in bipolar individuals proposes that decreased serotonergic regulation of other monoamines can result in either depressive or manic symptoms. Lesions on the right side frontal and temporal lobes have further been associated with mania. [19]

Diagnosis

The DSM-IV-TR defines a hypomanic episode as including, over the course of at least four days, elevated mood plus three of the following symptoms OR irritable mood plus four of the following symptoms, when the behaviors are clearly different from how the person typically acts when not depressed:

Treatment

Medications

Antimanic drugs are used to control acute attacks and prevent recurring episodes of hypomania combined with a range of psychological therapies. [21] The recommended length of treatment ranges from two to five years. Anti-depressants may also be required for existing treatments but are avoided in patients who have had a recent history with hypomania. [22] Sertraline has often been debated to have side effects that can trigger hypomania. [23] [24]

These include antipsychotics such as: [25]

Other anti-manic drugs that are not antipsychotics include:

Benzodiazepines such as clonazepam or lorazepam may be used to control agitation and excitement in the short-term.

Other drugs used to treat symptoms of mania/hypomania but considered less effective include:

Etymology

The Ancient Greek physicians Hippocrates and Aretaeus called one personality type "manic" (Greek: μαινόμενοι, mainómenoi). [26] [27] In 19th-century psychiatry, when mania had a broad meaning of insanity, hypomania was equated by some to concepts of "partial insanity" or monomania. [28] [29] [30] German neuro-psychiatrist Emanuel Ernst Mendel introduced hypomania ("hypo" meaning "under" in Greek) as a specific type of mania in 1881, writing, "I recommend, taking into consideration the word used by Hippocrates, to name those types of mania that show a less severe phenomenological picture, 'hypomania'". [26] [31] Narrower operational definitions of hypomania were developed in the 1960s and 1970s.

See also

Related Research Articles

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Bipolar disorder</span> Mental disorder that causes periods of depression and abnormally elevated mood

Bipolar disorder, previously known as manic depression, is a mental disorder characterized by periods of depression and periods of abnormally elevated mood that each last from days to weeks. If the elevated mood is severe or associated with psychosis, it is called mania; if it is less severe and does not significantly affect functioning, it is called hypomania. During mania, an individual behaves or feels abnormally energetic, happy or irritable, and they often make impulsive decisions with little regard for the consequences. There is usually also a reduced need for sleep during manic phases. During periods of depression, the individual may experience crying and have a negative outlook on life and poor eye contact with others. The risk of suicide is high; over a period of 20 years, 6% of those with bipolar disorder died by suicide, while 30–40% engaged in self-harm. Other mental health issues, such as anxiety disorders and substance use disorders, are commonly associated with bipolar disorder.

Bipolar I disorder is a type of bipolar spectrum disorder characterized by the occurrence of at least one manic episode, with or without mixed or psychotic features. Most people also, at other times, have one or more depressive episodes. Typically, these manic episodes can last at least 7 days for most of each day to the extent that the individual may need medical attention. Also, the depressive episodes will be approximately 2 weeks long.

Mania, also known as manic syndrome, is a mental and behavioral disorder defined as a state of abnormally elevated arousal, affect, and energy level, or "a state of heightened overall activation with enhanced affective expression together with lability of affect." During a manic episode, an individual will experience rapidly changing emotions and moods, highly influenced by surrounding stimuli. Although mania is often conceived as a "mirror image" to depression, the heightened mood can be either euphoric or dysphoric. As the mania intensifies, irritability can be more pronounced and result in anxiety or anger.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Mood stabilizer</span> Psychiatric medication used to treat mood disorders

A mood stabilizer is a psychiatric medication used to treat mood disorders characterized by intense and sustained mood shifts, such as bipolar disorder and the bipolar type of schizoaffective disorder.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Mood disorder</span> Mental disorder affecting the mood of an individual, over a long period of time

A mood disorder, also known as an affective disorder, is any of a group of conditions of mental and behavioral disorder where a disturbance in the person's mood is the main underlying feature. The classification is in the Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders (DSM) and International Classification of Diseases (ICD).

Schizoaffective disorder is a mental disorder characterized by abnormal thought processes and an unstable mood. This diagnosis requires symptoms of both schizophrenia and a mood disorder: either bipolar disorder or depression. The main criterion is the presence of psychotic symptoms for at least two weeks without any mood symptoms. Schizoaffective disorder can often be misdiagnosed when the correct diagnosis may be psychotic depression, bipolar I disorder, schizophreniform disorder, or schizophrenia. This is a problem as treatment and prognosis differ greatly for most of these diagnoses.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Mood swing</span> Extreme or rapid change in mood

A mood swing is an extreme or sudden change of mood. Such changes can play a positive part in promoting problem solving and in producing flexible forward planning, or be disruptive. When mood swings are severe, they may be categorized as part of a mental illness, such as bipolar disorder, where erratic and disruptive mood swings are a defining feature.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Mixed affective state</span> Medical condition

A mixed affective state, formerly known as a mixed-manic or mixed episode, has been defined as a state wherein features and symptoms unique to both depression and (hypo)mania, including episodes of anguish, despair, self doubt, rage, excessive impulsivity and suicidal ideation, sensory overload, racing thoughts, heightened irritability, decreased "need" for sleep and other symptoms of depressive and manic states occur either simultaneously or in very short succession.

The emphasis of the treatment of bipolar disorder is on effective management of the long-term course of the illness, which can involve treatment of emergent symptoms. Treatment methods include pharmacological and psychological techniques.

Cyclical variations in moods and energy levels have been recorded at least as far back as several thousand years. The words "melancholia" and "mania" have their etymologies in Ancient Greek. The word melancholia is derived from melas/μελας, meaning "black", and chole/χολη, meaning "bile" or "gall", indicative of the term's origins in pre-Hippocratic humoral theories. A man known as Aretaeus of Cappadocia has the first records of analyzing the symptoms of depression and mania in the 1st century of Greece. There is documentation that explains how bath salts were used to calm those with manic symptoms and also help those who are dealing with depression. Even today, lithium is used as a treatment to bipolar disorder which is significant because lithium could have been an ingredient in the Greek bath salt. Centuries passed and very little was studied or discovered. It wasn't until the mid-19th century that a French psychiatrist by the name of Jean-Pierre Falret wrote an article describing "circular insanity" and this is believed to be the first recorded diagnosis of bipolar disorder. Years later, in the early 1900s, Emil Kraepelin, a German psychiatrist, analyzed the influence of biology on mental disorders, including bipolar disorder. His studies are still used as the basis of classification of mental disorders today.

A spectrum disorder is a disorder that includes a range of linked conditions, sometimes also extending to include singular symptoms and traits. The different elements of a spectrum either have a similar appearance or are thought to be caused by the same underlying mechanism. In either case, a spectrum approach is taken because there appears to be "not a unitary disorder but rather a syndrome composed of subgroups". The spectrum may represent a range of severity, comprising relatively "severe" mental disorders through to relatively "mild and nonclinical deficits".

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Bipolar disorder in children</span>

Bipolar disorder in children, or pediatric bipolar disorder (PBD), is a rare mental disorder in children and adolescents. The diagnosis of bipolar disorder in children has been heavily debated for many reasons including the potential harmful effects of adult bipolar medication use for children. PBD is similar to bipolar disorder (BD) in adults, and has been proposed as an explanation for periods of extreme shifts in mood called mood episodes. These shifts alternate between periods of depressed or irritable moods and periods of abnormally elevated moods called manic or hypomanic episodes. Mixed mood episodes can occur when a child or adolescent with PBD experiences depressive and manic symptoms simultaneously. Mood episodes of children and adolescents with PBD are different from general shifts in mood experienced by children and adolescents because mood episodes last for long periods of time and cause severe disruptions to an individual's life. There are three known forms of PBD: Bipolar I, Bipolar II, and Bipolar Not Otherwise Specified (NOS). The average age of onset of PBD remains unclear, but reported age of onset ranges from 5 years of age to 19 years of age. PBD is typically more severe and has a poorer prognosis than bipolar disorder with onset in late-adolescence or adulthood.

Bipolar II disorder (BP-II) is a mood disorder on the bipolar spectrum, characterized by at least one episode of hypomania and at least one episode of major depression. Diagnosis for BP-II requires that the individual must never have experienced a full manic episode. Otherwise, one manic episode meets the criteria for bipolar I disorder (BP-I).

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Grandiose delusions</span> Subtype of delusion

Grandiose delusions (GDs), also known as delusions of grandeur or expansive delusions, are a subtype of delusion characterized by extraordinary belief that one is famous, omnipotent, wealthy, or otherwise very powerful. Grandiose delusions often have a religious, science fictional, or supernatural theme. Examples include the extraordinary belief that one is a deity or celebrity, or that one possesses extraordinary talents, accomplishments, or superpowers.

Bipolar disorder not otherwise specified (BD-NOS) is a diagnosis for bipolar disorder (BD) when it does not fall within the other established sub-types. Bipolar disorder NOS is sometimes referred to as subthreshold bipolar disorder.

Cyclothymia, also known as cyclothymic disorder, psychothemia / psychothymia, bipolar III, affective personality disorder and cyclothymic personality disorder, is a mental and behavioural disorder that involves numerous periods of symptoms of depression and periods of symptoms of elevated mood. These symptoms, however, are not sufficient to indicate a major depressive episode or a manic episode. Symptoms must last for more than one year in children and two years in adults.

The associated features of bipolar disorder are clinical phenomena that often accompany bipolar disorder (BD) but are not part of the diagnostic criteria for the disorder. There are several childhood precursors in children who later receive a diagnosis of bipolar disorder. They may show subtle early traits such as mood abnormalities, full major depressive episodes, and attention-deficit hyperactivity disorder. BD is also accompanied by changes in cognition processes and abilities. This includes reduced attentional and executive capabilities and impaired memory. How the individual processes the world also depends on the phase of the disorder, with differential characteristics between the manic, hypomanic and depressive states. Some studies have found a significant association between bipolar disorder and creativity.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Disruptive mood dysregulation disorder</span> Medical condition

Disruptive mood dysregulation disorder (DMDD) is a mental disorder in children and adolescents characterized by a persistently irritable or angry mood and frequent temper outbursts that are disproportionate to the situation and significantly more severe than the typical reaction of same-aged peers. DMDD was added to the Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders, Fifth Edition (DSM-V) as a type of depressive disorder diagnosis for youths. The symptoms of DMDD resemble many other disorders, thus a differential includes attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder (ADHD), oppositional defiant disorder (ODD), anxiety disorders, and childhood bipolar disorder, intermittent explosive disorder (IED), major depressive disorder (MDD), and conduct disorder.

The General Behavior Inventory (GBI) is a 73-question psychological self-report assessment tool designed by Richard Depue and colleagues to identify the presence and severity of manic and depressive moods in adults, as well as to assess for cyclothymia. It is one of the most widely used psychometric tests for measuring the severity of bipolar disorder and the fluctuation of symptoms over time. The GBI is intended to be administered for adult populations; however, it has been adapted into versions that allow for juvenile populations, as well as a short version that allows for it to be used as a screening test.

The following outline is provided as an overview of and topical guide to bipolar disorder:

References

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  2. ↑ Drs; Sartorius N, Henderson A, Strotzka H, Lipowski Z, Yu-cun S, You-xin X, Strömgren E, Glatzel J, Kühne GE, Misès R, Soldatos C, Pull C, Giel R, Jegede R, Malt U, Nadzharov R, Smulevitch A, Hagberg B, Perris C, Scharfetter C, Clare A, Cooper J, Corbett J, Griffith Edwards J, Gelder M, Goldberg D, Gossop M, Graham P, Kendell R, Marks I, Russell G, Rutter M, Shepherd M, West D, Wing J, Wing L, Neki J, Benson F, Cantwell D, Guze S, Helzer J, Holzman P, Kleinman A, Kupfer D, Mezzich J, Spitzer R, Lokar J. "The ICD-10 Classification of Mental and Behavioural Disorders Clinical descriptions and diagnostic guidelines" (PDF). www.who.int World Health Organization . Microsoft Word. bluebook.doc. pp. 91, 95. Retrieved 23 June 2021– via Microsoft Bing.
  3. ↑ Hypomania Hypomanic Episode Psychology Today Retrieved 25 June 2021
  4. ↑ Mania and Hypomania Archived 2015-04-02 at the Wayback Machine
  5. ↑ Understanding Hypomania and Mania Archived 2015-03-27 at the Wayback Machine
  6. ↑ "Bipolar Disorder in Adults" (PDF). NIH Publication No. 12-3679. National Institute of Mental Health. 2012. Archived from the original (PDF) on 2015-05-01.
  7. ↑ Goodwin G (2 January 2018). "Hypomania: What's in a name?". British Journal of Psychiatry. 181 (2): 94–95. doi: 10.1192/bjp.181.2.94 .
  8. 1 2 British Psychological Society, National Collaborating Centre for Mental Health (Great Britain), National Institute for Health and Clinical Excellence (Great Britain) (2006). Bipolar Disorder: The Management of Bipolar Disorder in Adults, Children and Adolescents, in Primary and Secondary Care. Leicester; London: British Psychological Society; Royal College of Psychiatrists. ISBN   978-1-85433-441-1. Archived from the original on 9 May 2018. Retrieved 3 December 2015.
  9. ↑ Doran C (2008). The hypomania handbook : the challenge of elevated mood. Philadelphia: Wolters Kluwer Health/Lippincott Williams & Wilkins. p. 16. ISBN   978-0-7817-7520-5 . Retrieved 3 December 2015.
  10. ↑ Kaufman J (2014). Creativity and mental illness. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. p. 214. ISBN   978-1-316-00362-6 . Retrieved 3 December 2015.
  11. ↑ Ghaemi SN (2003). Mood disorders : a practical guide. Philadelphia: Lippincott Williams & Wilkins. p. 48. ISBN   978-0-7817-2783-9 . Retrieved 4 December 2015.
  12. ↑ Bloch J (2006). The everything health guide to adult bipolar disorder : reassuring advice to help you cope . Avon, Mass.: Adams Media. p.  12. ISBN   978-1-59337-585-0 . Retrieved 4 December 2015. hyperthymia.
  13. ↑ "Cyclothymia". BehaveNet Clinical Capsules. Retrieved 2008-01-03.[ dead link ]
  14. ↑ "Bipolar II Disorder". BehaveNet. Retrieved 2008-01-03.[ dead link ]
  15. ↑ Post Robert M (2007). "Kindling and sensitization as models for affective episode recurrence, cyclicity, and tolerance phenomena". Neuroscience & Biobehavioral Reviews. 31 (6): 858–873. doi:10.1016/j.neubiorev.2007.04.003. PMID   17555817. S2CID   21258139.
  16. ↑ Drug-Induced Dysfunction in Psychiatry. Matcheri S. Keshavan and John S. Kennedy, Editors (Taylor & Francis, 1992).
  17. ↑ Bipolar Disorder: A Summary of Clinical Issues and Treatment Options. Bipolar Disorder Sub-Committee, Canadian Network for Mood and Anxiety Treatments (CANMAT). April 1997
  18. ↑ Daniel Fulford, Sheri L. Johnson, Charles S. Carver (December 2008). "Commonalities and differences in characteristics of persons at risk for narcissism and mania". J Res Pers. 42 (6): 1427–1438. doi:10.1016/j.jrp.2008.06.002. PMC   2849176 . PMID   20376289.
  19. ↑ Hilty DM, Leamon MH, Lim RF, Kelly RH, Hales RE (8 January 2017). "A Review of Bipolar Disorder in Adults". Psychiatry (Edgmont). 3 (9): 43–55. ISSN   1550-5952. PMC   2963467 . PMID   20975827.
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  21. ↑ "Hypomania and mania". NHS. Archived from the original on 2019-07-04. Retrieved 2019-07-04.
  22. ↑ "Mania and hypomania" . bnf. Retrieved 2019-07-03.
  23. ↑ Mendhekar DN, Gupta D, Girotra V (13 June 2003). "Sertraline-induced hypomania: a genuine side-effect". Acta Psychiatrica Scandinavica. 108 (1). wileyonlinelibrary: 70–72. doi:10.1034/j.1600-0447.2003.00080.x. PMID   12807380. S2CID   36573538.
  24. ↑ Mendhekar DN, Gupta D, Girotra V (1 July 2003). "Sertraline-induced hypomania: a genuine side-effect". Department of Psychiatry. 108 (1). DCBI: 70–4. doi:10.1034/j.1600-0447.2003.00080.x. PMID   12807380. S2CID   36573538.
  25. ↑ "Medications used when high (hypomania/mania)". bipolaruk. Retrieved 2019-07-03.
  26. 1 2 Emanuel Mendel (1881) Die Manie, p. 36: "Hypomanie", Urban & Schwarzenberg, Vienna and Leipzig (in German)
  27. ↑ Thomas P (April 2004). "The many forms of bipolar disorder: a modern look at an old illness". Journal of Affective Disorders. 79: 3–8. doi:10.1016/j.jad.2004.01.001. PMID   15121341.
  28. ↑ Baldwin et al. (1902) Dictionary of Philosophy and Psychology, p. 101: "Monomania", Macmillan: New York; London
  29. ↑ James Johnson, M.D., Ed. (1843) "Notices of Some New Works: Dr. H. Johnson on Mental Disorders", The Medical-Chirurgical Review, Vol. 39, p. 460: Hypomania
  30. ↑ Henry Johnson (1843) On the Arrangement and Nomenclature of Mental Disorders, Longmans, London, OCLC   706786581
  31. ↑ Edward Shorter (2005) A Historical Dictionary of Psychiatry, p.132, Oxford University Press, US ISBN   978-0-19803-923-5
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