List of first human settlements

Last updated

Overview map of the peopling of the world by anatomically modern humans (numbers indicate dates in thousands of years ago [kya]) Early migrations mercator.svg
Overview map of the peopling of the world by anatomically modern humans (numbers indicate dates in thousands of years ago [kya])

This is a list of dates associated with the prehistoric peopling of the world (first known presence of Homo sapiens ).

Contents

The list is divided into four categories, Middle Paleolithic (before 50,000 years ago), Upper Paleolithic (50,000 to 12,500 years ago), Holocene (12,500 to 500 years ago) and Modern (Age of Sail and modern exploration). List entries are identified by region (in the case of genetic evidence spatial resolution is limited) or region, country or island, with the date of the first known or hypothesised modern human presence (or "settlement", although Paleolithic humans were not sedentary).

Human "settlement" does not necessarily have to be continuous; settled areas in some cases become depopulated due to environmental conditions, such as glacial periods or the Toba volcanic eruption. [1] Early Homo sapiens migrated out of Africa from as early as 270,000 years ago, although these early migrations may have died out and permanent Homo sapiens presence outside of Africa may not have been established until about 70-50,000 years ago.

Middle Paleolithic

Before Homo sapiens , Homo erectus had already spread throughout Africa and non-Arctic Eurasia by about one million years ago. The oldest known evidence for anatomically modern humans (as of 2017) are fossils found at Jebel Irhoud, Morocco, dated about 360,000 years old. [2]

RegionCountryDate (kya)PlaceNotesRef(s)
Africa, North Africa Morocco 379-254 Jebel Irhoud Anatomically modern human remains of eight individuals dated 300,000 years old, making them the oldest known remains categorized as "modern" (as of 2018). [2]
Asia, West Asia Turkey 316–219 Neanderthal admixture Genetic evidence for early Homo sapiens admixture to Neanderthals in West Asia, discovered in 2017. [3]
Asia, Southeast Asia India 385–250 South India Quartzite tools excavated at Attirampakkam were dated back to 250,000-385,000 years old. [4]
Africa, Horn of Africa Ethiopia 200–190 Omo Kibish Formation The Omo remains of modern humans found in 1967 near the Ethiopian Kibish Mountains, dated stratigraphically to 195 ± 5 ka, may be related to Ledi-Geraru. [5]
Asia, West Asia Israel 195–177 Misliya Cave, Mount Carmel Fossil maxilla is apparently older than remains found at Skhyul and Qafzeh. Layers dating from between 250,000 and 140,000 years ago in the same cave contained tools of the Levallois type which could put the date of the first migration even earlier if the tools can be associated with the modern human jawbone finds. [6] [7] [8]
Africa, Southern Africa South Africa 200–110 Klasies River Caves, population genetics Remains found in the Klasies River Caves in the Eastern Cape province of South Africa show signs of human hunting dated c. 125 ka. There is some debate as to whether these remains represent anatomically modern humans.

Evidence from population genetics suggests separation before 110 ka, [9] most likely between 130 and 200 ka. [10]

[11] [12]
Africa, East Africa Sudan 160–140 Singa Anatomically modern human discovered 1924 with rare temporal bone pathology [13] [14]
Asia, West Asia, Arabia United Arab Emirates 125 Jebel Faya Stone tools made by anatomically modern humans (discovered 2011). [15]
Asia, West Asia, Arabia Oman 125–75 Aybut Tools found in the Dhofar Governorate correspond with African objects from the so-called 'Nubian Complex', dating from 75 to 125,000 years ago. According to archaeologist Jeffrey I. Rose, human settlements spread east from Africa across the Arabian Peninsula. [16]
Africa, Central Africa Democratic Republic of the Congo 90Katanda, Upper Semliki River Semliki harpoon heads carved from bone. [17]
Asia, Southeast Asia India 80 Central India Archaeological excavation carried out in the trenches at Dhaba in the upper Son river valley found stone tools and other evidences of human occupation in this area 80,000 years back. [18]
Asia, East Asia China, PRC 80 Fuyan Cave Teeth were found under rock over which 80,000 years old stalagmites had grown. [19]
Africa, North Africa Libya 80–65 Haua Fteah Fragments of 2 mandibles discovered in 1953 [20]
Asia, South Asia Sri Lanka 70–66 population genetics

Genetic evidence suggests first settlement 70–66 kya. Available fossil evidence from Sri Lanka has been dated to 34 kya.

 [21] [22]
Asia, Southeast Asia Sumatra, Indonesia 73–63 Lida Ajer cave Teeth found in Sumatra in the 19th century [23]
Asia, Southeast Asia Luzon, Philippines 67 Callao Cave Mijares and Piper (2010) found bones in a cave near Peñablanca, Cagayan, originally thought to be modern human. However, these were subsequently dated ca. 134 kya, belonging to a different species, Homo luzonensis . [24]
Africa, North Africa Egypt 50–80 Taramasa Hill Skeleton of 8- to 10-year-old child discovered in 1994 [25]
Australia Arnhem Land, Australia 65–50 Madjedbebe The oldest human skeletal remains are the 40ky old Lake Mungo remains in New South Wales, but human ornaments discovered at Devil's Lair in Western Australia have been dated to 48 kya and artifacts at Madjedbebe in Northern Territory are dated to at least 50 kya, and to 62.1±2.9 ka (95% CI) in one 2017 study. [26] [27] [28] [29]

Upper Paleolithic

RegionCountry / islandDate (kya)PlaceNotesRef(s)
South America Northeast Region, Brazil 56–41? Pedra Furada Hypothetical Pleistocene peopling of the Americas: charcoal from the oldest layers yielded dates of 41,000–56,000 BP. [30]
Asia, East Asia Honshu, Japan 47 Lake Nojiri Genetic research indicates arrival of humans in Japan by 37,000 BP. Archeological remains at the Tategahana Paleolithic Site at Lake Nojiri have been dated as early as 47,000 BP. [21] [31]
Asia, Southeast Asia, Indochina Laos 46 Tam Pa Ling Cave In 2009 an ancient skull was recovered from a cave in the Annamite Mountains in northern Laos which is at least 46,000 years old, making it the oldest modern human fossil found to date in Southeast Asia [32]
Europe 46–43The earliest known remains of Cro-Magnon-like humans are radiocarbon dated to 43,000–46,000 BP, found in Bulgaria, Italy, and Great Britain. [33] [34]
Europe Bulgaria 46-44 Bacho Kiro cave A tooth and six bone fragments are the earliest modern human remains yet found in Europe. [35]
Europe Italy 45–44 Grotta del Cavallo, Apulia Two baby teeth discovered in Apulia in 1964. [36]
Europe Great Britain, United Kingdom 44–41 Kents Cavern Human jaw fragment found in Torquay, Devon in 1927 [37]
Europe Germany 43–42 Geißenklösterle, Baden-Württemberg Three Paleolithic flutes belonging to the early Aurignacian, which is associated with the assumed earliest presence of Homo sapiens in Europe (Cro-Magnon). It is the oldest example of prehistoric music. [38]
Europe, Baltic Lithuania 43–41 Šnaukštai  [ lt ] near Gargždai A hammer made from reindeer horn similar to those used by the Bromme culture was found in 2016. The discovery pushed back the earliest evidence of human presence in Lithuania by 30,000 years, i.e. to before the last glacial period. [39]
Asia, Southeast Asia East Timor 42 Jerimalai caveFish bones [40]
Australia Tasmania 41 Jordan River Levee Optically stimulated luminescence results from the site suggest a date ca. 41,000 BP. Rising sea level left Tasmania isolated after 8000 BP. [41]
Asia, Southeast Asia Borneo, Malaysia 46–34? Niah Cave A human skull in Sarawak, Borneo (Archaeologists have claimed a much earlier date for stone tools found in the Mansuli valley, near Lahad Datu in Sabah, but precise dating analysis has not yet been published.) [42] [43]
Asia, Southeast Asia New Guinea 40Indonesian Side of New GuineaArchaeological evidence shows that 40,000 years ago, some of the first farmers came to New Guinea from the South-East Asian Peninsula. [21]
Europe Romania 42–38 Peștera cu Oase [44] [45]
Asia, East Asia Hong Kong, PRC 39 Wong Tei Tung Optically stimulated luminescence results from the site suggest a date ca. 39,000 BP. [46]
Europe Russia 40–35? Mamontovaya Kurya Earliest evidence of human (not necessarily anatomically modern humans) presence at Arctic latitudes. [47]
Asia, Central Asia, Tibetan Plateau Tibet, PRC 38Salween RiverFormerly dated to 15 kya, the date modern human presence in Tibet has been pushed back to at least 38 kya based on genetic evidence. Archaeological evidence from the bank of the Salween River in the southeastern Tibetan Plateau was dated between 32 and 39 kya. [48] [49] [50]
Asia, South Asia Sri Lanka 34 Fa Hien Cave The earliest remains of anatomically modern man, based on radiocarbon dating of charcoal, have been found in the Fa Hien Cave in western Sri Lanka. [51]
North America Canada 40–25? Bluefish Caves Hypothetical Pleistocene peopling of the Americas: Human-worked mammoth bone flakes found at Bluefish Caves, Yukon. [52] [53]
Asia, East Asia Okinawa 32 Yamashita-cho cave, Naha cityBone artifacts and an ash seam dated to 32,000±1000 BP. [54]
Europe France 32 Chauvet Cave The cave paintings in the Chauvet Cave in southern France have been called the earliest known cave art, though the dating is uncertain. [55]
Europe Czech Republic 31 Mladeč caves Oldest human bones that clearly represent a human settlement in Europe. [56]
Europe Poland 30 Obłazowa Cave A boomerang made from mammoth tusk
Asia, Southeast Asia Buka Island, New Guinea 28 Kilu Cave Flaked stone, bone, and shell artifacts [57]
Asia, East Asia Taiwan, Republic of China 30–20In 1972, fragmentary fossils of anatomically modern humans were found at Chouqu and Gangzilin, in Zuojhen District, Tainan, in fossil beds exposed by erosion of the Cailiao River. Though some of the fragments are believed to be more recent, three cranial fragments and a molar tooth have been dated as between 20,000 and 30,000 years old. The find has been dubbed "Zuozhen Man". No associated artifacts have been found at the site. [58] [59]
Europe Portugal 25 Abrigo do Lagar Velho Possible Neanderthal/Cro-Magnon hybrid, the Lapedo child [60]
North America United States 22 Lake Otero Human footprints in White Sands National Park in New Mexico. Stone, bone, and wood artifacts and animal and plant remains dating to 16,000 BP in Meadowcroft Rockshelter, Washington County, Pennsylvania. (Earlier claims have been made, but not corroborated, for 50,000 BP at sites such as Topper, South Carolina.) [61] [62] [63]
Europe Sicily 20 San Teodoro cave Human cranium dated by gamma-ray spectrometry [64]
South America Chile 18.5-14.5 Monte Verde Carbon dating of remains from this site represent the oldest known settlement in South America. [65] [66]
South America Peru 14 Pikimachay Stone and bone artifacts found in a cave of the Ayacucho complex [67]
North America Santa Rosa Island 13Arlington Springs site Arlington Springs Man discovered in 1959. The four northern Channel Islands of California were once conjoined into one island, Santa Rosae

Holocene

RegionCountry / islandDatePlaceNotesRef(s)
Europe, British Isles Ireland, Republic of Ireland 12,500 BP Gwendoline Cave The patella of a bear, which was subject to butchering close to the time of death has been radiocarbon dated to 10,500 BCE [68]
Mediterranean Cyprus 12,500 BP Aetokremnos Burned bones of megafauna [69]
Americas, South America Colombia 12,500 BP El Abra Stone, bone and charcoal artifacts [70]
Americas, North America Triquet Island 12,000 BP British Columbia [71] [72]
Europe, Scandinavia Norway 11,000 BP Aukra The oldest remnants of the so-called Fosna culture were found in Aukra in Møre og Romsdal. [73]
Americas, South America Argentina 11,000 BP Piedra Museo Spear heads and human fossils [74]
Europe, Baltic Estonia 11,000 BP Pulli The Pulli settlement on the bank of the Pärnu River briefly pre-dates that at Kunda, which gave its name to the Kunda culture. [75]
Atlantic / Central Africa Bioko, Equatorial Guinea 10,000 BPEarly Bantu migration [76]
Asia, Southeast Asia, Indochina Cambodia 9,000 BP Laang Spean Laang Spean cave in the Stung Sangker River valley, Battambang Province [77]
Arctic, New Siberian Islands Zhokhov Island 8,300 BPHunting tools and animal remains in the High Arctic; later abandoned and still uninhabited [78] [79]
Pacific Tuvalu 8,000 BP? Caves of Nanumanga Evidence of fire in a submerged cave last accessible 8000 BP[ dubious – discuss ]. Polynesian settlement around 3000 BP in Tuvalu [80]
Mediterranean Malta 7,250 BP Għar Dalam Settlers from Sicily brought agriculture and impressed ware pottery. [81] [ unreliable source? ]
Americas, Caribbean Trinidad 7,000 BP Banwari Trace Stone and bone artifacts mark the oldest archaeological site in the Caribbean. [82]
Americas, Caribbean Puerto Rico 6,000 BP Angostura site Carbon dating of burial site [83]
Arctic, North America Greenland 4,000 BP Saqqaq Saqqaq culture was the first of several waves of settlement from northern Canada and from Scandinavia. [84]
Arctic, North America Baffin Island, Canada 4,000 BP Pond Inlet In 1969, Pre-Dorset remains were discovered, with seal bones radiocarbon dated to 2035 BCE [85]
Asia, Central Asia Xinjiang, PRC 3,800 BP?Tarim Basin Tarim mummies [86]
Pacific Mariana Islands 3,500 BP? Unai Bapot, Saipan Pottery similar to that from nowadays Philippines has been discovered. This was the longest human ocean voyage at the time. [87] [88]
Arctic, Siberia Wrangel Island 3,400 BP Chertov Ovrag Sea-mammal hunting tools; later abandoned, with intermittent settlements 1914–present [89]
Pacific Tonga 3,180 BPPea village on Tongatapu Radiocarbon dating of a shell found at the site dates the occupation at 3180±100 BP. [90]
Pacific Fiji 3,000 BP Bourewa, Nadroga Radiocarbon dating of a shell midden at Bourewa on Viti Levu Island shows earliest inhabitation at 1220–970 BCE. [91]
Atlantic / North Africa Canary Islands 3,000 BPGenetic studies show relation to Moroccan Berbers, but precise date uncertain. [92]
Pacific Vanuatu 3,000 BP Teouma etc. Lapita pottery found at Teouma cemetery on Efate and on several other islands. [93]
Pacific Samoa 3,000 BP Mulifanua Lapita site found at Mulifanua Ferry Berth Site by New Zealand scientists in the 1970s. [94]
Pacific Hawaii 1,700 BP Ka Lae Early settlement from the Marquesas Islands [95]
Pacific Line Islands 1,600 BP When Polynesian traders travelling to and from Hawaii [96]
Indian Ocean / East Africa Madagascar 1,500 BPThe population of Madagascar seems to have derived in equal measures from Borneo and East Africa. [97]
Atlantic / Northern Europe Faroe Islands 1,500 BPAgricultural remains from three locations were analysed and dated to as early as the sixth century CE [98]
Indian Ocean / East Africa Comoros 1,450 BP Austronesian settlers arrived no later than the 6th century, based on archaeological evidence on Nzwani; settlement beginning as early as the 1st century has been postulated. [99]
Americas, Caribbean Bahamas 1,100 BPThree Dog Site (SS21), San Salvador Island Excavated midden includes quartz and Ostionoid ceramic artifacts, wood and seed remains, etc., dated to 800–900. [100]
Pacific Huahine, Society Islands (French Polynesia) 1,140 BP Fa'ahia Bird bones dated to 1140±90 BP [101]
Atlantic / Northern Europe Iceland CE 874 / 1,076 BP Reykjavík Ingólfr Arnarson, the first known Norse settler who came from mainland Norway, built his homestead in Reykjavík this year, though Norse or Hiberno-Scottish monks might have arrived up to two hundred years earlier. [102]
Pacific Easter Island CE 750–1150 / 1,200–800 BP Anakena Settled by voyagers from the Marquesas Islands, possibly as early as CE 300. [103]
Pacific New Zealand CE 1250 / 700 BP Wairau Bar It is generally accepted that the islands were permanently settled by Eastern Polynesians (the ancestors of the Māori) who arrived about 1250–1300. [104] [105]
Pacific Norfolk Island CE 1250 / 700 BPEmily BaySettled by Polynesians, later abandoned. Resettled by British 1788. [106] [107]
Pacific Auckland Islands CE 1250 / 700 BPSandy Bay, Enderby Island Settled by Polynesians, later abandoned. Resettled from the Chatham Islands in 1842, later abandoned. [107]
Pacific Kermadec Islands CE 1350 / 600 BPSettled by Polynesians by the 14th century (possibly previously, around the 10th century), later abandoned. Resettled by Europeans in 1810, later abandoned. [108]
Atlantic / North Africa Madeira CE 1420 / 530 BPSettlers from Portugal. [109]
Atlantic Azores CE 1439 / 511 BP Santa Maria Island Settlers from Portugal led by Gonçalo Velho Cabral. [110]
Atlantic / West Africa Cape Verde CE 1462 / 488 BP Cidade Velha Settlers from Portugal founded the city as "Ribeira Grande." [111]
Atlantic / Central Africa São Tomé and Príncipe CE 1485 / 465 BP São Tomé Portuguese settlement in 1485 failed but was followed in 1493 by a successful settlement led by Álvaro Caminha. [112]

Modern

Sea / regionIslandDatePlaceNotesRef(s)
Pacific Ocean Chatham Islands 1500 Moriori settlers from New Zealand. This was the last wave of Polynesian migrations. [113]
South Atlantic Saint Helena 1516Settled by Fernão Lopes (soldier). Later populated by escaped slaves from Mozambique and Java, then by English in 1659. [114]
South Atlantic / Central Africa Annobón 1543 Alvaro da Cunha requested Portuguese royal charter in 1543 and by 1559 had settled Africans slaves there. [115]
North Atlantic Bermuda 1609Settled by English survivors of the Sea Venture shipwreck, led by George Somers.
Arctic, Northern Europe Svalbard 1619 Smeerenburg Settled by Dutch and Danish whalers 1619–1657. Longyearbyen founded 1906 and continuously inhabited except for World War II. [116]
Indian Ocean Mauritius 1638 Vieux Grand Port First settled by Dutch under Cornelius Gooyer. [117]
Indian Ocean Réunion 1642Settled 1642 by a dozen deported French mutineers from Madagascar, who were returned to France several years later. In 1665 the French East India Company started a permanent settlement.
Indian Ocean Rodrigues 1691Settled 1691 by a small group of French Huguenots led by François Leguat; abandoned 1693. The French settled slaves there in the 18th century. [118]
East Pacific Clipperton Island 1725A short settlement in 1725. Intermittent settlement during the 19th and 20th centuries. [119]
East Pacific Juan Fernández Islands 1750 San Juan Bautista Settled by the Spanish to prevent its use by foreign powers and pirates. Destroyed in 1751 by a tsunami but soon rebuilt. [120]
South Atlantic Falkland Islands 1764 Puerto Soledad Settled by French (as "Port Saint Louis") during the expedition of Louis Antoine de Bougainville. [121]
Indian Ocean Seychelles 1770 Ste. Anne Island Although visited earlier by Maldivians, Malays and Arabs, the first known settlement was a spice plantation established by the French, first on Ste. Anne Island, then moved to Mahé. It is the sovereign state with the shortest history of human settlement (followed by Mauritius). [122]
East Pacific Floreana Island 1805Black BeachFirst settled 1805–1809 by Patrick Watkins. Later attempts in 1837, 1893, 1925, and 1929. [123]
South Atlantic Tristan da Cunha 1810First settled by Jonathan Lambert and two other men. Continuously inhabited since then except 1961–1963 evacuation due to volcano. [124]
South Atlantic Ascension Island 1815Settled as a British military garrison. Some prior shipwrecked sailors in 18th century.
Pacific Ocean, Bering Sea Commander Islands 1825Russians brought Aleuts from Atka Island and Attu Island to settle Bering Island and Medny Island.. [125] [126]
Indian Ocean Cocos (Keeling) Islands c. 1826Settled c. 1826 by Alexander Hare and in 1827 by John Clunies-Ross. [127]
Pacific Ocean Bonin Islands 1830Port Lloyd, Chichi-jima Some evidence of early settlement from the Marianas, but the islands were abandoned except for occasional shipwrecks until a group of Europeans, Polynesians, and Micronesians settled Chichi-jima in 1830. [128]
Pacific Ocean, Tasman Sea Lord Howe Island 1834Blinky BeachWhaling supply station. [107]
Indian Ocean Île Saint-Paul 1843Although now uninhabited, there have been attempts at settlement. In June 1843, a French garrison was established under the command of Polish-born Captain Adam Mierolawski, but it was soon abandoned. In 1928, a spiny lobster cannery was established, with the last three settlers rescued in 1934. [129] [130]
Arctic, Northern Europe Novaya Zemlya 1870 Malye Karmakuly Earlier overwinterings dating back to 16th century [131] [132] [133]
Indian Ocean Île Amsterdam 1871 Camp Heurtin Following various shipwrecks and visits by sealers and scientists in the 18th and 19th century, a short-lived settlement was made in 1871 by Heurtin, a French resident of Réunion Island. A French scientific base has been maintained since 1949. [134]
Pacific Ocean Minami-Tori-shima 1886Despite visits dating back to the 17th century, the first permanent settlement was in 1886. [135]
Indian Ocean Christmas Island 1888 Flying Fish Cove First European settlement established by George Clunies-Ross and John Murray with phosphate mining begun around 10 years later. [136]
Pacific Ocean Campbell Island 1896 Sheep farming was undertaken from 1896 until the lease, along with the sheep and a small herd of cattle, was abandoned in 1931 because of the Great Depression. [137]
Pacific Ocean, Philippine Sea Daitō Islands 1900 Minamidaitōjima Tamaki Hanemon  [ ja ] obtained the approval to develop two of islands from Empire of Japan
Antarctic South Orkney Islands 1903 Orcadas Base Visited by sealers and whalers in the 19th century. Scientific base founded by Scottish National Antarctic Expedition and sold to Argentina in 1904.
South Atlantic South Georgia 1904 Grytviken Visited by sealers in the 19th century. Carl Anton Larsen founded a permanent whaling station in 1904.
Arctic, Northern Europe Jan Mayen 1921 Eggøya Visited by whalers in the 17th century, with some overwinter sojourns in 1633, 1882, and 1907. Weather station at Eggøya established 1921, followed by other weather and military stations. The current station, Olonkinbyen, has been continuously inhabited since 1958. [138]
Indian Ocean Kerguelen Islands 1927 Port-Couvreux After occasional sojourns and shipwrecks in the 19th century, three families settled in a sheep-farming colony but were evacuated in 1934. Scientific station at Port-aux-Français has been continuously inhabited since 1950.
Arctic, New Siberian Islands Kotelny Island 1933Soviet Naval Base. [139]
Antarctic South Shetland Islands 1947 Captain Arturo Prat Base Visited by sealers and explorers in the 19th century. Chilean naval base staffed continuously 1947–2004.
Indian Ocean Prince Edward Islands 1947 Transvaal Cove Visited by sealers and shipwrecks in the 19th century. South Africa occupied the islands in 1947 and established a meteorological station. [140]
Antarctica 1948 Base General Bernardo O'Higgins Riquelme, Antarctic Peninsula First permanent base in continental Antarctica, operated by the Chilean Army.
Pacific Ocean Macquarie Island 1948 Macquarie Island Station Occasional sojourns and shipwrecks in the 19th century, continuously inhabited since 1948.
East Pacific Revillagigedo Islands 1957 Socorro Island Mexican naval base established. Shorter stays in 19th and early 20th centuries [141]
Indian Ocean Crozet Islands 1963 Alfred Faure Occasional shipwrecks and visiting sealers and whalers in the 19th century, continuously inhabited since 1963.
Arctic, Siberia Severnaya Zemlya 1974 Cape Baranov A meteorological station was operated from 1974 to 1988. "Prima" Polar Station opened at some point in the 1980s. [142] [143]
North Atlantic / British Isles Rockall 1985Former SAS member Tom McClean lived on the island from 26 May to 4 July 1985 to affirm the UK's claim to the islet. Other short stays have been made, including one by Greenpeace and a 60-day fundraising effort for Help for Heroes [144] [145]

See also

Related Research Articles

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Early modern human</span> Old Stone Age Homo sapiens

Early modern human (EMH), or anatomically modern human (AMH), are terms used to distinguish Homo sapiens that are anatomically consistent with the range of phenotypes seen in contemporary humans, from extinct archaic human species. This distinction is useful especially for times and regions where anatomically modern and archaic humans co-existed, for example, in Paleolithic Europe. Among the oldest known remains of Homo sapiens are those found at the Omo-Kibish I archaeological site in south-western Ethiopia, dating to about 233,000 to 196,000 years ago, the Florisbad site in South Africa, dating to about 259,000 years ago, and the Jebel Irhoud site in Morocco, dated about 315,000 years ago.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Beringia</span> Geographic region of Asia and North America currently partly submerged

Beringia is defined today as the land and maritime area bounded on the west by the Lena River in Russia; on the east by the Mackenzie River in Canada; on the north by 72 degrees north latitude in the Chukchi Sea; and on the south by the tip of the Kamchatka Peninsula. It includes the Chukchi Sea, the Bering Sea, the Bering Strait, the Chukchi and Kamchatka Peninsulas in Russia as well as Alaska in the United States and the Yukon in Canada.

<i>Homo</i> Genus of hominins that includes humans and their closest extinct relatives

Homo is a genus of great ape that emerged from the genus Australopithecus and encompasses the extant species Homo sapiens and a number of extinct species classified as either ancestral to or closely related to modern humans, including Homo erectus and Homo neanderthalensis. The oldest member of the genus is Homo habilis, with records of just over 2 million years ago. Homo, together with the genus Paranthropus, is probably most closely related to the species Australopithecus africanus within Australopithecus. The closest living relatives of Homo are of the genus Pan, with the ancestors of Pan and Homo estimated to have diverged around 5.7-11 million years ago during the Late Miocene.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Aurignacian</span> Upper Paleolithic culture of Europe

The Aurignacian is an archaeological industry of the Upper Paleolithic associated with Early European modern humans (EEMH) lasting from 43,000 to 26,000 years ago. The Upper Paleolithic developed in Europe some time after the Levant, where the Emiran period and the Ahmarian period form the first periods of the Upper Paleolithic, corresponding to the first stages of the expansion of Homo sapiens out of Africa. They then migrated to Europe and created the first European culture of modern humans, the Aurignacian.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">African archaeology</span> Archaeology conducted in Africa

Africa has the longest record of human habitation in the world. The first hominins emerged 6-7 million years ago, and among the earliest anatomically modern human skulls found so far were discovered at Omo Kibish,Jebel Irhoud, and Florisbad.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Upper Paleolithic</span> Subdivision of the Paleolithic or Old Stone Age

The Upper Paleolithic is the third and last subdivision of the Paleolithic or Old Stone Age. Very broadly, it dates to between 50,000 and 12,000 years ago, according to some theories coinciding with the appearance of behavioral modernity in early modern humans, until the advent of the Neolithic Revolution and agriculture.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Detailed logarithmic timeline</span> Timeline of the history of the universe, Earth, and mankind

This timeline shows the whole history of the universe, the Earth, and mankind in one table. Each row is defined in years ago, that is, years before the present date, with the earliest times at the top of the chart. In each table cell on the right, references to events or notable people are given, more or less in chronological order within the cell.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Middle Stone Age</span> Period in African prehistory

The Middle Stone Age was a period of African prehistory between the Early Stone Age and the Late Stone Age. It is generally considered to have begun around 280,000 years ago and ended around 50–25,000 years ago. The beginnings of particular MSA stone tools have their origins as far back as 550–500,000 years ago and as such some researchers consider this to be the beginnings of the MSA. The MSA is often mistakenly understood to be synonymous with the Middle Paleolithic of Europe, especially due to their roughly contemporaneous time span; however, the Middle Paleolithic of Europe represents an entirely different hominin population, Homo neanderthalensis, than the MSA of Africa, which did not have Neanderthal populations. Additionally, current archaeological research in Africa has yielded much evidence to suggest that modern human behavior and cognition was beginning to develop much earlier in Africa during the MSA than it was in Europe during the Middle Paleolithic. The MSA is associated with both anatomically modern humans as well as archaic Homo sapiens, sometimes referred to as Homo helmei. Early physical evidence comes from the Gademotta Formation in Ethiopia, the Kapthurin Formation in Kenya and Kathu Pan in South Africa.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Early human migrations</span> Spread of humans from Africa through the world

Early human migrations are the earliest migrations and expansions of archaic and modern humans across continents. They are believed to have begun approximately 2 million years ago with the early expansions out of Africa by Homo erectus. This initial migration was followed by other archaic humans including H. heidelbergensis, which lived around 500,000 years ago and was the likely ancestor of Denisovans and Neanderthals as well as modern humans. Early hominids had likely crossed land bridges that have now sunk.

This timeline of prehistory covers the time from the appearance of Homo sapiens approximately 315,000 years ago in Africa to the invention of writing, over 5,000 years ago, with the earliest records going back to 3,200 BC. Prehistory covers the time from the Paleolithic to the beginning of ancient history.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Art of the Middle Paleolithic</span>

The oldest undisputed examples of figurative art are known from Europe and from Sulawesi, Indonesia, dated about 35,000 years old . Together with religion and other cultural universals of contemporary human societies, the emergence of figurative art is a necessary attribute of full behavioral modernity.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Recent African origin of modern humans</span> "Out of Africa" theory of the early migration of humans

In paleoanthropology, the recent African origin of modern humans or the "Out of Africa" theory (OOA) is the most widely accepted model of the geographic origin and early migration of anatomically modern humans. It follows the early expansions of hominins out of Africa, accomplished by Homo erectus and then Homo neanderthalensis.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Denisovan</span> Asian archaic human

The Denisovans or Denisova hominins(di-NEE-sə-və) are an extinct species or subspecies of archaic human that ranged across Asia during the Lower and Middle Paleolithic, and lived, based on current evidence, from 285 to 25 thousand years ago. Denisovans are known from few physical remains; consequently, most of what is known about them comes from DNA evidence. No formal species name has been established pending more complete fossil material.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Neanderthal</span> Extinct Eurasian species or subspecies of archaic humans

Neanderthals are an extinct group of archaic humans who lived in Eurasia until about 40,000 years ago. The type specimen, Neanderthal 1, was found in 1856 in the Neander Valley in present-day Germany.

Hominid dispersals in Europe refers to the colonisation of the European continent by various species of hominid, including hominins and archaic and modern humans.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Early expansions of hominins out of Africa</span> First hominin expansion into Eurasia (2.1–0.1 Ma)

Several expansions of populations of archaic humans out of Africa and throughout Eurasia took place in the course of the Lower Paleolithic, and into the beginning Middle Paleolithic, between about 2.1 million and 0.2 million years ago (Ma). These expansions are collectively known as Out of Africa I, in contrast to the expansion of Homo sapiens (anatomically modern humans) into Eurasia, which may have begun shortly after 0.2 million years ago.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Peopling of the Americas</span> Prehistoric migration from Asia to the Americas

The peopling of the Americas began when Paleolithic hunter-gatherers (Paleo-Indians) entered North America from the North Asian Mammoth steppe via the Beringia land bridge, which had formed between northeastern Siberia and western Alaska due to the lowering of sea level during the Last Glacial Maximum. These populations expanded south of the Laurentide Ice Sheet and spread rapidly southward, occupying both North and South America, by 12,000 to 14,000 years ago. The earliest populations in the Americas, before roughly 10,000 years ago, are known as Paleo-Indians. Indigenous peoples of the Americas have been linked to Siberian populations by linguistic factors, the distribution of blood types, and in genetic composition as reflected by molecular data, such as DNA.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Misliya Cave</span> A prehistoric cave in Mount Carmel, Israel

Misliya Cave, also known as the "Brotzen Cave" after Fritz Brotzen, who first described it in 1927, is a collapsed cave at Mount Carmel, Israel, containing archaeological layers from the Lower Paleolithic and Middle Paleolithic periods. The site is significant in paleoanthropology for the discovery of what were from 2018 to 2019 considered to be the earliest known remains attributed to Homo sapiens outside Africa, dated to 185,000 years ago. Since the time of its discovery in 2011, Jebel Faya, in the United Arab Emirates, had been considered to be the oldest settlement of anatomically-modern humans outside Africa, with its deepest assemblage being dated to 125,000 years ago.

Southeast Asia was first reached by anatomically modern humans possibly before 70,000 years ago. Anatomically modern humans are suggested to have reached Southeast Asia twice in the course of the Southern Dispersal migrations during and after the formation of a distinct East Asian clade from 70,000 to 50,000 years ago.

References

  1. ↑ Whitehouse, David (9 June 2003). "When humans faced extinction". BBC Online . Retrieved 27 July 2010.
  2. 1 2 David Richter; et al. (8 June 2017). "The age of the hominin fossils from Jebel Irhoud, Morocco, and the origins of the Middle Stone Age". Nature. 546 (7657): 293–296. Bibcode:2017Natur.546..293R. doi:10.1038/nature22335. PMID   28593967. S2CID   205255853.
  3. ↑ Posth, Cosimo; et al. (4 July 2017). "Deeply divergent archaic mitochondrial genome provides lower time boundary for African gene flow into Neanderthals". Nature Communications . 8: 16046. Bibcode:2017NatCo...816046P. doi:10.1038/ncomms16046. PMC   5500885 . PMID   28675384.; a related citation is: Zimmer, Carl (4 July 2017). "In Neanderthal DNA, Signs of a Mysterious Human Migration". New York Times . Retrieved 4 July 2017.
  4. ↑ "These Tools Upend Our View of Stone-Age Humans in Asia". National Geographic Society . 31 January 2018. Archived from the original on 28 February 2021.
  5. ↑ Mcdougall, Ian; Brown, FH; Fleagle, JG (2005). "Stratigraphic placement and age of modern humans from Kibish, Ethiopia" (PDF). Nature. 433 (7027): 733–736. Bibcode:2005Natur.433..733M. doi:10.1038/nature03258. PMID   15716951. S2CID   1454595.
  6. ↑ "Scientists discover oldest known modern human fossil outside of Africa: Analysis of fossil suggests Homo sapiens left Africa at least 50,000 years earlier than previously thought". ScienceDaily. Retrieved 27 January 2018.
  7. ↑ Ghosh, Pallab (2018). "Modern humans left Africa much earlier". BBC News. Retrieved 27 January 2018.
  8. ↑ Hershkovitz, Israel; et al. (2018). "The earliest modern humans outside Africa". Science Magazine. 359 (6374): 456–459. Bibcode:2018Sci...359..456H. doi: 10.1126/science.aap8369 . hdl: 10072/372670 . PMID   29371468.
  9. ↑ Rito, T; Richards, MB; Fernandes, V; Alshamali, F; Cerny, V; Pereira, L; et al. (2013). "The First Modern Human Dispersals across Africa". PLOS ONE. 8 (11): e80031. Bibcode:2013PLoSO...880031R. doi: 10.1371/journal.pone.0080031 . PMC   3827445 . PMID   24236171.
  10. ↑ point estimate 168.5 ka (136.3–201.1 ka 95% CI) according to Heinz, Tanja; et al. (2017). "Updating the African human mitochondrial DNA tree: Relevance to forensic and population genetics". Forensic Science International: Genetics. 27: 156–159. doi:10.1016/j.fsigen.2016.12.016. PMID   28086175. (table 2). 150 ka suggested in:Soares, Pedro; Ermini, Luca; Thomson, Noel; Mormina, Maru; Rito, Teresa; Röhl, Arne; Salas, Antonio; Oppenheimer, Stephen; MacAulay, Vincent (2009). "Correcting for Purifying Selection: An Improved Human Mitochondrial Molecular Clock". The American Journal of Human Genetics. 84 (6): 740–59. doi:10.1016/j.ajhg.2009.05.001. PMC   2694979 . PMID   19500773.. Age estimates (ka, 95% CI in angular brackets): ML whole-mtDNA age estimate: 128.2 [95% CI: 107.9–148.9], ρ whole-mtDNA age estimate: 121.3 [99.2;143.7], ρ synonymous age estimate (ka): 131.0 [97.8;164.2]: Rito, T; Richards, MB; Fernandes, V; Alshamali, F; Cerny, V; Pereira, L; Soares, P (2013). "The first modern human dispersals across Africa". PLOS ONE. 8 (11): e80031. Bibcode:2013PLoSO...880031R. doi: 10.1371/journal.pone.0080031 . PMC   3827445 . PMID   24236171.
  11. ↑ Hirst, K. Kris. "Klasies River Caves – Middle Paleolithic South Africa". About.com. Archived from the original on 2 March 2007. Retrieved 26 July 2010.
  12. ↑ Churchill, SE; Pearson, OM; Grine, FE; Trinkaus, Erik; Holliday, TW (1996). "Morphological affinities of the proximal ulna from Klasies River main site: archaic or modern?". Journal of Human Evolution. 31 (3): 213. doi:10.1006/jhev.1996.0058.
  13. ↑ Spoor, Fred; Stringer, Chris; Zonneveld, Frans (1998). "Rare Temporal Bone Pathology of the Singa Calvaria From Sudan" (PDF). American Journal of Physical Anthropology. 107 (1): 41–50. doi:10.1002/(SICI)1096-8644(199809)107:1<41::AID-AJPA4>3.0.CO;2-G. PMID   9740300.
  14. ↑ "Late Middle (200-130 Kyr) and early Upper Pleistocene (130-60 Kyr) African human fossils" (PDF). Retrieved 6 May 2023.
  15. ↑ Armitage, S.; Jasim, S.; Marks, A.; Parker, A.; Usik, V.; Uerpmann, H. (2011). "The Southern Route "Out of Africa": Evidence for an Early Expansion of Modern Humans into Arabia". Science. 331 (6016): 453–456. Bibcode:2011Sci...331..453A. doi:10.1126/science.1199113. PMID   21273486. S2CID   20296624.
  16. ↑ "125,000 years ago first human settlement began in Sultanate". Oman Daily Observer . 7 April 2010. Archived from the original on 24 July 2011. Retrieved 24 July 2010.
  17. ↑ Yellen, JE; Brooks, AS; Cornelissen, E; Mehlman, MJ; Stewart, K (28 April 1995). "A middle stone age worked bone industry from Katanda, Upper Semliki Valley, Zaire". Science. 268 (5210): 553–556. Bibcode:1995Sci...268..553Y. doi:10.1126/science.7725100. PMID   7725100.
  18. ↑ Clarkson, Chris; Harris, Clair; Li, Bo; Neudorf, Christina M.; Roberts, Richard G.; Lane, Christine; Norman, Kasih; Pal, Jagannath; Jones, Sacha; Shipton, Ceri; Koshy, Jinu; Gupta, M. C.; Mishra, D. P.; Dubey, A. K.; Boivin, Nicole; Petraglia, Michael (2020). "Human occupation of northern India spans the Toba super-eruption ~74,000 years ago". Nature Communications. 11 (1): 961. Bibcode:2020NatCo..11..961C. doi:10.1038/s41467-020-14668-4. PMC   7042215 . PMID   32098950.
  19. ↑ Callaway, Ewen (14 October 2015). "Teeth from China reveal early human trek out of Africa". Nature. Retrieved 28 January 2018.
  20. ↑ Douka, Katerina; Jacobs, Zenobia; Lane, Christine; Grün, Rainer; Farr, Lucy; Hunt, Chris; Inglis, Robyn H.; Reynolds, Tim; Albert, Paul; Aubert, Maxime; Cullen, Victoria; Hill, Evan; Kinsley, Leslie; Roberts, Richard G.; Tomlinson, Emma L.; Wulf, Sabine; Barker, Graeme (January 2014). "The chronostratigraphy of the Haua Fteah cave (Cyrenaica, northeast Libya)". Journal of Human Evolution. 66: 39–63. doi: 10.1016/j.jhevol.2013.10.001 . PMID   24331954.
  21. 1 2 3 Stanyon, Roscoe; Marco Sazzini; Donata Luiselli (2009). "Timing the first human migration into eastern Asia". Journal of Biology . 8 (2): 18. doi: 10.1186/jbiol115 . ISSN   1475-4924. PMC   2687770 . PMID   19232059.
  22. ↑ Balter, Michael (2010). "Of Two Minds About Toba's Impact". Science. 327 (5970): 1187–1188. Bibcode:2010Sci...327.1187B. doi:10.1126/science.327.5970.1187-a. PMID   20203021. "Genetic diversity in present-day India is second only to that in Africa and implies settlement soon after humans left Africa. Dispersal across Eurasia from Africa to India was often previously estimated to have occurred between 45,000 and 59,000 years ago, but a recent proposal [Kumar et al. 2008] of 66,000 to 70,000 years ago" Kumar, S; Padmanabham, PB; Ravuri, RR; Uttaravalli, K; Koneru, P; Mukherjee, PA; Das, B; Kotal, M; Xaviour, D; Saheb, SY; Rao, VR (2008). "The earliest settlers' antiquity and evolutionary history of Indian populations: evidence from M2 mtDNA lineage". BMC Evol. Biol. 8 (1): 230. Bibcode:2008BMCEE...8..230K. doi: 10.1186/1471-2148-8-230 . PMC   2528015 . PMID   18691441.Kennedy, KA; Deraniyagala, SU; Roertgen, WJ; Chiment, J; Disotell, T (1987). "Upper pleistocene fossil hominids from Sri Lanka". Am J Phys Anthropol. 72 (4): 441–61. doi:10.1002/ajpa.1330720405. PMID   3111269.
  23. ↑ K. E. Westaway; J. Louys; R. Due Awe; M. J. Morwood; G. J. Price; J.-x. Zhao; M. Aubert; R. Joannes-Boyau; T. M. Smith; M. M. Skinner; T. Compton; R. M. Bailey; G. D. van den Bergh; J. de Vos; A. W. G. Pike; C. Stringer; E. W. Saptomo; Y. Rizal; J. Zaim; W. D. Santoso; A. Trihascaryo; L. Kinsley; B. Sulistyanto (2017). "An early modern human presence in Sumatra 73,000–63,000 years ago" (PDF). Nature. 548 (7667): 322–325. Bibcode:2017Natur.548..322W. doi:10.1038/nature23452. PMID   28792933. S2CID   4398895.
  24. ↑ Rainer Grün, Chris Stringer, Direct dating of human fossils and the ever-changing story of human evolution. Quaternary Science Reviews, Volume 322, 2023, 108379, ISSN 0277-3791
  25. ↑ Vermeersch, P.M.; Paulissen, E.; Stokes, S.; Charlier, C.; Van Peer, P.; Stringer, C.; Lindsay, W. (1998). "A Middle Palaeolithic burial of a modern human at Taramsa Hill, Egypt" (PDF). Antiquity . 72 (277): 475–484. doi:10.1017/S0003598X00086919. S2CID   53615140.
  26. ↑ Chris Clarkson; Zenobia Jacobs; Ben Marwick; Richard Fullagar; Lynley Wallis; Mike Smith; Richard G. Roberts; Elspeth Hayes; Kelsey Lowe; Xavier Carah; S. Anna Florin; Jessica McNeil; Delyth Cox; Lee J. Arnold; Quan Hua; Jillian Huntley; Helen E. A. Brand; Tiina Manne; Andrew Fairbairn; James Shulmeister; Lindsey Lyle; Makiah Salinas; Mara Page; Kate Connell; Gayoung Park; Kasih Norman; Tessa Murphy; Colin Pardoe (2017). "Human occupation of northern Australia by 65,000 years ago". Nature. 547 (7663): 306–310. Bibcode:2017Natur.547..306C. doi:10.1038/nature22968. hdl: 2440/107043 . PMID   28726833. S2CID   205257212. "settlement of Madjedbebe around 65 ka (conservatively 59.3 ka, calculated as 65.0 ka minus the age uncertainty of 5.7 kyr at 95.4%)" While the age of 50,000 years has been widely accepted since the 1990s, this latter estimate has, as of 2017, not found general acceptance among experts, e.g. Wood, Rachel (2 September 2017). "Comments on the chronology of Madjedbebe". Australian Archaeology. 83 (3): 172–174. doi:10.1080/03122417.2017.1408545. ISSN   0312-2417. S2CID   148777016.
  27. ↑ Bowler JM, Johnston H, Olley JM, Prescott JR, Roberts RG, Shawcross W, Spooner NA (2003). "New ages for human occupation and climatic change at Lake Mungo, Australia". Nature. 421 (6925): 837–40. Bibcode:2003Natur.421..837B. doi:10.1038/nature01383. PMID   12594511. S2CID   4365526.
  28. ↑ Turney CS, Bird MI, Fifield LK, Roberts RG, Smith M, Dortch CE, Grun R, Lawson E, Ayliffe LK, Miller GH, Dortch J, Cresswell RG (2001). "Early Human Occupation at Devil's Lair, Southwestern Australia 50,000 Years Ago". Quaternary Research. 55 (1): 3–13. Bibcode:2001QuRes..55....3T. doi:10.1006/qres.2000.2195. S2CID   140134337.
  29. ↑ Chris Clarkson; Zenobia Jacobs; Ben Marwick; Richard Fullagar; Lynley Wallis; Mike Smith; Richard G. Roberts; Elspeth Hayes; Kelsey Lowe; Xavier Carah; S. Anna Florin; Jessica McNeil; Delyth Cox; Lee J. Arnold; Quan Hua; Jillian Huntley; Helen E. A. Brand; Tiina Manne; Andrew Fairbairn; James Shulmeister; Lindsey Lyle; Makiah Salinas; Mara Page; Kate Connell; Gayoung Park; Kasih Norman; Tessa Murphy; Colin Pardoe (2017). "Human occupation of northern Australia by 65,000 years ago". Nature. 547 (7663): 306–310. Bibcode:2017Natur.547..306C. doi:10.1038/nature22968. hdl: 2440/107043 . PMID   28726833. S2CID   205257212.
  30. ↑ Santos, G.M.; et al. (2003). "A revised chronology of the lowest occupation layer of Pedra Furada Rock Shelter, Piauı́, Brazil: the Pleistocene peopling of the Americas". Quaternary Science Reviews. 22 (21–22): 2303–2310. Bibcode:2003QSRv...22.2303S. doi:10.1016/S0277-3791(03)00205-1.
  31. ↑ Norton, Christopher J.; David R. Braun (2010). Asian Paleoanthropology: From Africa to China and Beyond. Springer. p. 194. ISBN   9789048190942.
  32. ↑ "Lao skull earliest example of modern human fossil in Southeast Asia".
  33. ↑ Benazzi, S.; Douka, K.; Fornai, C.; Bauer, C. C.; Kullmer, O.; Svoboda, J. Í.; Pap, I.; Mallegni, F.; Bayle, P.; Coquerelle, M.; Condemi, S.; Ronchitelli, A.; Harvati, K.; Weber, G. W. (2011). "Early dispersal of modern humans in Europe and implications for Neanderthal behaviour". Nature. 479 (7374): 525–8. Bibcode:2011Natur.479..525B. doi:10.1038/nature10617. PMID   22048311. S2CID   205226924.
  34. ↑ Higham, T.; Compton, T.; Stringer, C.; Jacobi, R.; Shapiro, B.; Trinkaus, E.; Chandler, B.; Gröning, F.; Collins, C.; Hillson, S.; o'Higgins, P.; Fitzgerald, C.; Fagan, M. (2011). "The earliest evidence for anatomically modern humans in northwestern Europe". Nature. 479 (7374): 521–4. Bibcode:2011Natur.479..521H. doi:10.1038/nature10484. PMID   22048314. S2CID   4374023.
  35. ↑ Hublin, Jean-Jacques; et al. (11 May 2020). "Initial Upper Paleolithic Homo sapiens from Bacho Kiro Cave, Bulgaria" (PDF). Nature. 581 (7808): 299–302. Bibcode:2020Natur.581..299H. doi:10.1038/s41586-020-2259-z. PMID   32433609. S2CID   218592678.
  36. ↑ Benazzi, Stefano; et al. (24 November 2011). "Early dispersal of modern humans in Europe and implications for Neanderthal behaviour". Nature. 479 (7374): 525–528. Bibcode:2011Natur.479..525B. doi:10.1038/nature10617. PMID   22048311. S2CID   205226924.
  37. ↑ Higham, Tom; Compton, Tim; Stringer, Chris; Jacobi, Roger; Shapiro, Beth; Trinkaus, Eric; Chandler, Barry; Gröning, Flora; Collins, Chris; Hillson, Simon; O'Higgins, Paul; FitzGerald, Charles; Fagan, Michael (24 November 2011). "The earliest evidence for anatomically modern humans in northwestern Europe". Nature. 479 (7374): 521–524. Bibcode:2011Natur.479..521H. doi:10.1038/nature10484. PMID   22048314. S2CID   4374023.
  38. ↑ Wilford, John Noble (29 May 2012). "Flute's Revised Age Dates the Sound of Music Earlier". New York Times . p. D4. Retrieved 31 May 2012.
  39. ↑ Kniežaitė, Milda (29 June 2016). "Šnaukštų karjere – sensacingas radinys". Lietuvos žinios (in Lithuanian). Archived from the original on 27 November 2016. Retrieved 27 November 2016.
  40. ↑ O'Connor, Sue; Rintaro Ono; Chris Clarkson (25 November 2011). "Pelagic Fishing at 42,000 Years Before the Present and the Maritime Skills of Modern Humans" (PDF). Science Magazine. 334 (6059): 1117–1121. Bibcode:2011Sci...334.1117O. doi:10.1126/science.1207703. hdl: 1885/35424 . PMID   22116883. S2CID   20791703.
  41. ↑ Paton, Robert. "Draft Final Archaeology Report on the Test Excavations of the Jordan River Levee Site Southern Tasmania" (PDF). DPIWE. p. 2. Archived from the original (PDF) on 1 October 2011. Retrieved 7 April 2012.
  42. ↑ Barker, Graeme; et al. (2007). "The 'human revolution' in lowland tropical Southeast Asia: the antiquity and behavior of anatomically modern humans at Niah Cave (Sarawak, Borneo)". Journal of Human Evolution. 52 (3): 243–261. doi:10.1016/j.jhevol.2006.08.011. PMID   17161859.
  43. ↑ Fong, Durie Rainer (10 April 2012). "Archaeologists hit 'gold' at Mansuli". The Star. Archived from the original on 12 April 2012.
  44. ↑ Trinkaus, E; Moldovan, O; Milota, S; Bîlgăr, A; Sarcina, L; Athreya, S; Bailey, SE; Rodrigo, R; et al. (2003). "An early modern human from the Peştera cu Oase, Romania". Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences. 100 (20): 11231–11236. Bibcode:2003PNAS..10011231T. doi: 10.1073/pnas.2035108100 . ISSN   0027-8424. PMC   208740 . PMID   14504393.
  45. ↑ Wilford, John Noble (2 November 2011). "Fossil Teeth Put Humans in Europe Earlier Than Thought". New York Times.
  46. ↑ Ng, Stephen. "Hong Kong Archaeology". HKAS. p. 1. Archived from the original on 13 June 2020. Retrieved 8 January 2016.
  47. ↑ Pavlov, Pavel; John Inge Svendsen; Svein Indrelid (6 September 2001). "Human presence in the European Arctic nearly 40,000 years ago". Nature. 413 (6851): 64–67. Bibcode:2001Natur.413...64P. doi:10.1038/35092552. PMID   11544525. S2CID   1986562.
  48. ↑ Aldenderfer M (2011). "Peopling the Tibetan plateau: insights from archaeology". High Alt. Med. Biol. 12 (2): 141–147. doi:10.1089/ham.2010.1094. PMID   21718162.
  49. ↑ Qi X, Cui C, Peng Y, Zhang X, Yang Z, Zhong H, Zhang H, Xiang K, Cao X, Wang Y, et al. (2013). "Genetic evidence of paleolithic colonization and neolithic expansion of modern humans on the tibetan plateau". Mol. Biol. Evol. 30 (8): 1761–1778. doi: 10.1093/molbev/mst093 . PMID   23682168.
  50. ↑ Jane Qiu, The Surprisingly Early Settlement of the Tibetan Plateau, Scientific American, 1 March 2017.
  51. ↑ Deraniyagala, Siran U. "Pre- and Protohistoric settlement in Sri Lanka". XIII U. I. S. P. P. Congress Proceedings- Forli, 8 – 14 September 1996. International Union of Prehistoric and Protohistoric Sciences. Retrieved 8 September 2008.
  52. ↑ Cinq-Mars, Jacques. "Significance of the Bluefish Caves in Beringian Prehistory". Canadian Museum of Civilization. Retrieved 19 June 2012.
  53. ↑ "Canada's First Nations: Habitation and Settlement". University of Calgary. 2000. Archived from the original on 5 May 2010. Retrieved 26 July 2010.
  54. ↑ Suzuki, Hisashi; Kazuro Hanihara; et al. (1982). "The Minatogawa Man: The Upper Pleistocene Man from the Island of Okinawa". Bulletin of the University Museum. 19. University of Tokyo. Chapter 1.
  55. ↑ Clottes, Jean (2003). Chauvet Cave: The Art of Earliest Times. Paul G. Bahn (translator). University of Utah Press. ISBN   978-0874807585.
  56. ↑ Lovgren, Stefan (19 May 2005). "Prehistoric Bones Point to First Modern-Human Settlement in Europe". National Geographic . Archived from the original on 22 May 2005. Retrieved 24 July 2010.
  57. ↑ Wickler, Stephen; Matthew Spriggs (1988). "Pleistocene human occupation of the Solomon Islands, Melanesia". Antiquity . 62 (237): 703–706. doi:10.1017/S0003598X00075104. S2CID   164013119. Archived from the original on 23 December 2012. Retrieved 18 November 2012.
  58. ↑ Olsen, John W.; Miller-Antonio, Sari (1992). "The Palaeolithic in Southern China". Asian Perspectives. 31 (2): 129–160. hdl:10125/17011.
  59. ↑ Liu, Yichang (2009). "Zuozhen Man". Encyclopedia of Taiwan. Archived from the original on 15 July 2012.
  60. ↑ Duarte; Maurício, J; Pettitt, PB; Souto, P; Trinkaus, E; Van Der Plicht, H; Zilhão, J; et al. (1999). "The early Upper Paleolithic human skeleton from the Abrigo do Lagar Velho (Portugal) and modern human emergence in the Iberian Peninsula". Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America. 96 (13): 7604–7609. Bibcode:1999PNAS...96.7604D. doi: 10.1073/pnas.96.13.7604 . PMC   22133 . PMID   10377462.
  61. ↑ Bennett, Matthew; et al. (24 September 2021). "Evidence of humans in North America during the Last Glacial Maximum". Science . 373 (6562): 1528–1531. Bibcode:2021Sci...373.1528B. doi:10.1126/science.abg7586. PMID   34554787. S2CID   237616125 . Retrieved 25 October 2021.
  62. ↑ University of South Carolina (2004). "New Evidence Puts Man in North America 50,000 Years Ago". ScienceDaily. Retrieved 15 April 2014.
  63. ↑ Heinz History Center: Rockshelter Artifacts Archived 24 June 2011 at the Wayback Machine , Heinz History Center. Pittsburgh, PA. Retrieved 19 June 2012.
  64. ↑ Sineo, Luca; et al. (2002). "I resti umani della Grotta di S. Teodoro (Messina): datazione assoluta con il metodo della spettrometria gamma diretta (U/Pa)". Antropo. 2: 9–16. Retrieved 18 December 2012.
  65. ↑ "Monte Verde Archaeological Site". UNESCO World Heritage Centre . Retrieved 26 July 2010.
  66. ↑ Dillehay, Tom D.; Ocampo, Carlos; Saavedra, José; Sawakuchi, Andre Oliveira; Vega, Rodrigo M.; Pino, Mario; Collins, Michael B.; Cummings, Linda Scott; Arregui, Iván (18 November 2015). "New Archaeological Evidence for an Early Human Presence at Monte Verde, Chile". PLOS ONE. 10 (11): e0141923. Bibcode:2015PLoSO..1041923D. doi: 10.1371/journal.pone.0141923 . ISSN   1932-6203. PMC   4651426 . PMID   26580202.
  67. ↑ Bonavia, Duccio (1991). Perú, hombre e historia. Vol. I. Edubanco. p. 89.
  68. ↑ "Earliest evidence of humans in Ireland". BBC Online . 21 March 2016. Retrieved 28 January 2018.
  69. ↑ Simmons, Alan H. (2001). "The first humans and last pygmy hippopotami of Cyprus" (PDF). In Swiny, Stuart (ed.). The earliest prehistory of Cyprus: From colonization to exploitation. Cyprus American Archaeological Research Institute Monograph Series. Vol. 2. Boston: American Schools of Oriental Research. pp. 1–18. Archived from the original (PDF) on 6 June 2016. Retrieved 24 April 2012.
  70. ↑ Gómez Mejía, Juliana. 2012. Análisis de marcadores óseos de estrés en poblaciones del Holoceno Medio y Tardío incial de la sabana de Bogotá, Colombia – Analysis of bone stress markers in populations of the Middle and Late Holocene of the Bogotá savanna, Colombia. Revista Colombiana de Antropología 48. 143–168. Accessed 8 July 2016.
  71. ↑ Katz, Brigit. "Found: One of the Oldest North American Settlements". Smithsonian. Retrieved 9 January 2018.
  72. ↑ "Heiltsuk First Nation village among oldest in North America: Archeologists". Vancouver Sun. 28 March 2017. Retrieved 10 January 2018.
  73. ↑ Fugelsnes, Elin. "I Fred Flintstones rike" (in Norwegian). Forskning.no (NTNU). Archived from the original on 9 June 2011. Retrieved 24 July 2010.
  74. ↑ "Expediciones arqueológicas desde Truncado". Welcome Argentina. Retrieved 6 May 2023.
  75. ↑ Poska, Anneli; Leili Saarse (1996). "Prehistoric human disturbance of the environment induced from Estonian pollen records: a pilot study". Proceedings of the Estonian Academy of Sciences, Geology. 45 (3). Estonian Academy Publishers: 152. doi: 10.3176/geol.1996.3.03 . S2CID   127324500 . Retrieved 31 July 2010.
  76. ↑ Mateu; et al. (1997). "A tale of two islands: population history and mitochondrial DNA sequence variation of Bioko and São Tomé, Gulf of Guinea". Annals of Human Genetics. 61 (6): 507–518. doi:10.1046/j.1469-1809.1997.6160507.x. hdl: 10316/8086 . PMID   9543551. S2CID   23171607.
  77. ↑ Mourer, C. & R.; Leili Saarse (1977). "Laang Spean and the prehistory of Cambodia". Modern Quaternary Research in Southeast Asia. 3: 29–56.
  78. ↑ Pitul'ko, V. V. (1993). "An Early Holocene Site in the Siberian High Arctic". Arctic Anthropology. 30 (1): 13–21. JSTOR   40316326.
  79. ↑ Pitul'ko, V. V.; Kasparov, A. V. (1996). "Ancient arctic hunters: material culture and survival strategy". Arctic Anthropology. 33 (1): 1–36. JSTOR   40316394.
  80. ↑ "The Fire Caves of Nanumaga". The Age . Melbourne, Australia. 13 April 1987.
  81. ↑ "Ghardalam". Archived from the original on 20 November 2008. Retrieved 6 May 2023.
  82. ↑ Rouse, Irving; Louis Allaire (1978). "Caribbean Chronology" . In RE Taylor and CW Meighan (ed.). Chronologies in New World Archaeology. New York: Academic Press. pp.  431–481. ISBN   978-0126857504.
  83. ↑ Siegel, Peter E.; et al. (2005). "Environmental and Cultural Correlates in the West Indies: A View from Puerto Rico". In Peter E. Siegel (ed.). Ancient Borinquen: Archaeology and Ethnohistory of Native Puerto Rico. Tuscaloosa: University of Alabama Press. p. 113. ISBN   978-0817352387.
  84. ↑ Rasmussen, M; Li, Y; Lindgreen, S; Pedersen, JS; Albrechtsen, A; Moltke, I; Metspalu, M; Metspalu, E; Kivisild, T; Gupta, R; Bertalan, M; Nielsen, K; Gilbert, MT; Wang, Y; Raghavan, M; Campos, PF; Kamp, HM; Wilson, AS; Gledhill, A; Tridico, S; Bunce, M; Lorenzen, ED; Binladen, J; Guo, X; Zhao, J; Zhang, X; Zhang, H; Li, Z; Chen, M; Orlando, L; Kristiansen, K; Bak, M; Tommerup, N; Bendixen, C; Pierre, TL; Grønnow, B; Meldgaard, M; Andreasen, C; Fedorova, SA; Osipova, LP; Higham, TF; Ramsey, CB; Hansen, TV; Nielsen, FC; Crawford, MH; Brunak, S; Sicheritz-Pontén, T; Villems, R; Nielsen, R; Krogh, A; Wang, J; Willerslev, E (2010). "Ancient human genome sequence of an extinct Palaeo-Eskimo". Nature. 463 (7282): 463, 757–762. Bibcode:2010Natur.463..757R. doi:10.1038/nature08835. PMC   3951495 . PMID   20148029.
  85. ↑ Mary-Rousselière, Guy (1976). "The Paleoeskimo in Northern Baffinland". Memoirs of the Society for American Archaeology. 31 (31): 40–41. doi:10.1017/S0081130000000769. JSTOR   40495394.
  86. ↑ Mallory & Mair (2000), p. 237.
  87. ↑ Nath. "Epic voyage and potteries: an ancient connection between the Philippines and the Marianas | Imprints of Philippine Science". Imphscience.wordpress.com. Retrieved 26 March 2013.
  88. ↑ Carson, Mike T. (2014). First Settlement of Remote Oceania: Earliest Sites in the Mariana Islands. SpringerBriefs in Archaeology. Vol. 1. Springer Science+Business Media. doi:10.1007/978-3-319-01047-2. ISBN   978-3-319-01046-5. S2CID   129592203.
  89. ↑ Dikov, N. N. (1988). "The Earliest Sea Mammal Hunters of Wrangell Island". Arctic Anthropology. 25 (1): 80–93. JSTOR   40316156.
  90. ↑ Kirch, Patrick Vinton (1997). The Lapita Peoples: Ancestors of the Oceanic World. Cambridge: Blackwell Publishers. p. 273. ISBN   9781577180364.
  91. ↑ Nunn, Patrick D.; et al. (October 2004). "Early Lapita settlement site at Bourewa, southwest Viti Levu Island, Fiji". Archaeology in Oceania. 39 (3): 139–143. doi:10.1002/j.1834-4453.2004.tb00571.x. JSTOR   40387292.
  92. ↑ Maca-Meyer N, Arnay M, Rando JC, et al. (February 2004). "Ancient mtDNA analysis and the origin of the Guanches". Eur. J. Hum. Genet. 12 (2): 155–162. doi: 10.1038/sj.ejhg.5201075 . PMID   14508507.
  93. ↑ Bedford, Stuart (2006). Pieces of the Vanuatu Puzzle: Archaeology of the North, South and Centre. Canberra: Pandanus Books. p. 273. ISBN   978-1-74076-093-5.
  94. ↑ Green, Roger C.; Leach, Helen M. (1989). "New Information for the Ferry Berth Site, Mulifanua, Western Samoa". Journal of the Polynesian Society. 98 (3): 319–330.
  95. ↑ Kirch, Patrick Vinton (1997). Feathered Gods and Fishhooks: An Introduction to Hawaiian Archaeology and Prehistory. University of Hawaii Press. p. 84. ISBN   978-0-8248-1938-5.
  96. ↑ Teeb'aki in Scott, Derek A. (1993): Republic of Kiribati Archived 30 May 2008 at the Wayback Machine . A Directory of Wetlands in Oceania, pp. 199–228. International Waterfowl and Wetlands Research Bureau, Slimbridge, U.K. and Asian Wetland Bureau, Kuala Lumpur, Malaysia.
  97. ↑ "The cryptic past of Madagascar – Wellcome Trust Sanger Institute". Sanger Institute. 4 May 2005. Retrieved 24 July 2010.
  98. ↑ Hannon, G; Bradshaw, Richard H.W. (2000). "Impacts and Timing of the First Human Settlement on Vegetation of the Faroe Islands". Quaternary Research. 54 (3): 404–413. Bibcode:2000QuRes..54..404H. doi:10.1006/qres.2000.2171. ISSN   0033-5894. S2CID   56064254.
  99. ↑ Federal Research Division of the Library of Congress under the Country Studies/Area Handbook Program (August 1994). Ralph K. Benesch (ed.). A Country Study: Comoros. Washington, DC: US Department of the Army. Archived from the original on 12 January 2007. Retrieved 15 January 2007.
  100. ↑ Berman, Mary Jane; Pearsall, Deborah M. (2000). "Plants, People, and Culture in the Prehistoric Central Bahamas: A View from the Three Dog Site, an Early Lucayan Settlement on San Salvador Island, Bahamas". Latin American Antiquity. 11 (3): 223–225. doi:10.2307/972175. JSTOR   972175. S2CID   163326535.
  101. ↑ Steadman, D. W.; Pahlavan, D. S. (October 1992). "Extinction and biogeography of birds on Huahine, Society Islands, French Polynesia". Geoarchaeology. 7 (5): 449–483. Bibcode:1992Gearc...7..449S. doi:10.1002/gea.3340070503.
  102. ↑ Logan, F. Donald (2005). The Vikings in history. Taylor & Francis. pp. 49–50. ISBN   978-0415327565 . Retrieved 24 July 2010.
  103. ↑ Hunt, T. L., Lipo, C. P., 2006. Science, 1121879. A related citation is: "Late Colonization of Easter Island" in Science Magazine. The entire article was Archived 29 August 2008 at the Wayback Machine and is hosted by the Department of Anthropology of the University of Hawaii.
  104. ↑ Irwin, Geoff; Walrond, Carl (4 March 2009). "When was New Zealand first settled? – The date debate". Te Ara Encyclopedia of New Zealand. Retrieved 26 July 2010.
  105. ↑ Buckley, H.; Tayles, N.; Halcrow, S.; Robb, K.; Fyfe, R. (2009). "The People of Wairau Bar: a Re-examination". Journal of Pacific Archaeology. 1 (1): 1–20.
  106. ↑ Anderson, Atholl; White, Peter (2001). "Prehistoric Settlement on Norfolk Island and its Oceanic Context" (PDF). Records of the Australian Museum. 27 (Supplement 27): 135–141. doi:10.3853/j.0812-7387.27.2001.1348. Archived from the original (PDF) on 4 March 2016. Retrieved 11 June 2012.
  107. 1 2 3 Macnaughtan, Don (2001). "Mystery Islands of Remote South Polynesia: Bibliography of Prehistoric Settlement on Norfolk Island, the Kermadecs, Lord Howe, and the Auckland Islands".
  108. ↑ Gentry, Steven (2013). "2: Rangitahua – the Stopping-off Place". Raoul & the Kermadecs: New Zealand's Northernmost Islands, a History. Steele Roberts Aotearoa. pp. 37–51. ISBN   978-1-927242-02-5.
  109. ↑ Dervenn, Claude (1957). Madeira. Translated by Hogarth-Gaute, Frances. London: George G. Harrap and Co. p. 20. OCLC   645870163 . Retrieved 7 June 2016. And when he returned in May 1420 to take possession of "his" island, it was with his wife and the sons and daughters that the virtuous Constanga had given him.
  110. ↑ Rodrigues, João Damião (1995). "Sociedade e administração nos Açores (século XV–XVIII) : o caso de Santa Maria" (PDF). Arquipélago. História (in Portuguese). 1 (2) (2 ed.): 33–63. ISSN   0871-7664.
  111. ↑ Cortesão, Armando (1931) "Subsídios para a história do Descobrimento de Cabo Verde e Guiné", Boletim da Agencia Geral das Colonias, No. 75. As reprinted in 1975, Esparsos, vol. 1, Coimbra.
  112. ↑ Newitt, M. D. D. (2005). A History of Portuguese Overseas Expansion, 1400–1668. Psychology Press. p. 48. ISBN   9780415239806.
  113. ↑ McFadgen, B. G. (March 1994). "Archaeology and Holocene sand dune stratigraphy on Chatham Island". Journal of the Royal Society of New Zealand. 24 (1): 17–44. Bibcode:1994JRSNZ..24...17M. doi: 10.1080/03014223.1994.9517454 .
  114. ↑ "A Brief History | Saint Helena Island Info: All about St Helena, in the South Atlantic Ocean".
  115. ↑ de Wulf, Valérie (2014). Histoire de l'île d'Annobon (Guinée Equatoriale) et de ses habitants: du XVè au XIXè siècle, Volume 1. Editions L'Harmattan. p. 338. ISBN   9782343033976.
  116. ↑ Ellis, Richard (1991). Men & Whales . Alfred A. Knopf. p.  62. ISBN   978-1-55821-696-9.
  117. ↑ "Cultural Heritage Structures and Sites in Mauritius". Portal of the Republic of Mauritius. Government of Mauritius. 2005. Archived from the original on 30 August 2010. Retrieved 16 June 2012.
  118. ↑ Leguat, François (1891). The voyage of François Leguat of Bresse, to Rodriguez, Mauritius, Java, and the Cape of Good Hope. Vol. 1. Edited and annotated by Samuel Pasfield Oliver. London: Hakluyt Society. p. 55.
  119. ↑ "CLIPPERTON ISLAND" . Retrieved 10 July 2020.
  120. ↑ Urbina Carrasco, María Ximena (2014). "El frustrado fuerte de Tenquehuen en el archipiélago de los Chonos, 1750: Dimensión chilota de un conflicto hispano-británico". Historia . 47 (I). Retrieved 28 January 2016.
  121. ↑ Goebel, Julius (August 1971). The struggle for the Falkland Islands: a study in legal and diplomatic history. Kennikat Press. ISBN   978-0-8046-1390-3 . Retrieved 17 March 2011. pp. 226
  122. ↑ McAteer, William (1991). Rivals in Eden: a history of the French settlement and British conquest of the Seychelles Islands, 1742–1818. Book Guild. ISBN   978-0863324963 . Retrieved 15 April 2014.
  123. ↑ Oxford, Peter; Graham Watkins (2009). Galapagos: Both Sides of the Coin. Morgansville: Imagine Publishing. ISBN   978-0982293935 . Retrieved 16 December 2017./
  124. ↑ "Tristan d'Acunha, etc.: Jonathan Lambert, late Sovereign thereof". Blackwood's Edinburgh Magazine. 4 (21): 280–285. December 1818.
  125. ↑ "Kamchatka: Bering Island". pbs.org. Retrieved 7 January 2018.
  126. ↑ Grebnitsky, N. A. (1902). Commander Islands. Translated by Woehlcke, Louise. St. Petersburg, Russia: W. Kirshbaum. p. 40.
  127. ↑ Gleanings in Science, Volume 2. Baptist Mission Press. 1830.
  128. ↑ Oda, Shizuo (1984). "Archaeology of the Ogasawara Islands" (PDF). Asian Perspectives. 24 (1): 111–138.
  129. ↑ "Chronique Geographique". Bulletin de Géographie d'Aix-Marseille. 17. Société de Géographie de Marseille: 184. 1893. Retrieved 18 June 2016.
  130. ↑ Les oubliés de l'île Saint-Paul, by Daniel Floch. 1982.
  131. ↑ "Health, science and education, history and trade among others – news review from the Arkhangelsk region". Barents.fi. 3 August 2005. Retrieved 27 September 2012.
  132. ↑ "Новая земля – история заселения". Belushka.virtbox.ru. Retrieved 27 September 2012.
  133. ↑ "Новая земля в 1917–1941 гг". Belushka.virtbox.ru. Retrieved 27 September 2012.
  134. ↑ Headland, R. K. (1989). Chronological List of Antarctic Expeditions and Related Historical Events. Cambridge University Press. p. 188. ISBN   9780521309035.
  135. ↑ Kuroda, Nagahisa (1954). "Report on a trip to Marcus Island, with notes on the birds". Pacific Science. 8 (1).
  136. ↑ "Christmas Island – Fact sheet 157". National Archives of Australia. Archived from the original on 4 February 2014. Retrieved 3 July 2018.
  137. ↑ Ian S. Kerr, Campbell Island, a History, Wellington: A.H. & A.W. Reed,1976.
  138. ↑ Jan Mayen Information by Rolf Stange
  139. ↑ Atle Staalesen (17 September 2013). "In remotest Russian Arctic, a new Navy base". Barents Observer.
  140. ↑ Mills, William J. (2003). Exploring Polar Frontiers: A Historical Encyclopedia, Volume 1. ABC-CLIO. p. 531. ISBN   978-1576074220.
  141. ↑ Historia general de la secretaria de marina gob.mx (in Spanish)
  142. ↑ Bassford, Robin; Siegert, Martin; Dowdeswell, Julian; Oerlemans, Johannes; Glazovsky, Andrey; Macheret, Yuri (February 2006). "Quantifying the Mass Balance of Ice Caps on Severnaya Zemlya, Russian High Arctic. I: Climate and Mass Balance of the Vavilov Ice Cap". Arctic, Antarctic, and Alpine Research. 38 (1): 1–12. doi:10.1657/1523-0430(2006)038[0001:QTMBOI]2.0.CO;2. hdl: 1874/21379 . S2CID   131042892. Archived from the original on 3 March 2012. Retrieved 13 August 2015.
  143. ↑ "На Северной Земле, в р-не мысе Баранова, расконсервирована полярная станция "Прима"". www.ec-arctic.ru. Retrieved 6 May 2023.
  144. ↑ Written answers, Dublin: Oireachtas, retrieved 29 January 2018
  145. ↑ "Rockall". Scotland.gov.
This page is based on this Wikipedia article
Text is available under the CC BY-SA 4.0 license; additional terms may apply.
Images, videos and audio are available under their respective licenses.