Neophobia

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Neophobia
Specialty Psychiatry, clinical psychology

Neophobia is the fear of anything new, but is directly correlated with conditions such as OCD or autism spectrum disorder. In its milder form, it can manifest as the unwillingness to try new things or break from routine. In the context of children, the term is generally used to indicate a tendency to reject unknown or novel foods. [1] Food neophobia, as it may be referred to, is an important concern in pediatric psychology. [2] [3]

Contents

In biomedical research, neophobia is often associated with the study of taste.

Terminology

The word neophobia comes from the Greek νέος, neos, meaning "new, young", [4] and φόβος, phobos, for "fear". [5] Cainophobia comes from the Greek καινός, kainos, meaning "new, fresh". [6] [7] Alternative terms for neophobia include metathesiophobia, prosophobia, cainotophobia (or cainophobia), and kainophobia (or kainolophobia). [8]

Examples

Norway rats and house mice are thought to have evolved increased levels of neophobia as they became commensal with humans because humans were routinely devising new methods (e.g., mousetraps) to eradicate them. [9]

Neophobia is also a common finding in aging animals, although apathy could also explain, or contribute to explain, the lack of exploratory drive systematically observed in aging. Researchers argued that the lack of exploratory drive was likely due neurophysiologically to the dysfunction of neural pathways connected to the prefrontal cortex observed during aging. [10]

Robert Anton Wilson theorized in his book Prometheus Rising that neophobia is instinctual in people after they begin to raise children. Wilson's views on neophobia are mostly negative, believing that it is the reason human culture and ideas do not advance as quickly as our technology. His model includes an idea from Thomas Kuhn's The Structure of Scientific Revolutions , which is that new ideas, however well proven and evident, are implemented only when the generations who consider them "new" die and are replaced by generations who consider the ideas accepted and old.

Food neophobia

Food neophobia in humans has been described as the fear of eating new or unfamiliar foods. It differs from avoidant/restrictive food intake disorder. Food neophobia is particularly common in toddlers and young children. It is often related to an individual's level of sensation-seeking, meaning a person's willingness to try new things and take risks. Not only do people with high food neophobia resist trying new food, they also rate new foods that they do try as lower than neophilics. [11] Picky eating has been a cause of concern for many parents of young children. This results in leaving parents feeling frustrated, and risk compounding parental anxieties. Parents tend to worry about the growth and lack of nutrient in their child. Pediatricians and family physicians are always there to teach parents and care givers different ways to feed their children effectively.

It is very typical for people to generally have a fear of new things and to prefer things that are familiar and common. Most people experience food neophobia to a certain extent, though some people are more neophobic than others. A measure of individual differences in food neophobia is the Food Neophobia Scale (FNS), which consists of a 10-item survey that requires self-reported responses on a seven-point Likert scale. [12] There is also a separate scale geared towards children called the Food Neophobia Scale for Children (FNSC), in which the parents actually do the reporting for the survey. [13]

In animals it has been shown that food neophobia is a fear of novelty lasting only a short duration (minutes at most), which is distinct from dietary conservatism, the prolonged refusal to add a novel food to the diet, which can last many days or even years. [14] [15] Dietary conservatism has never yet been demonstrated in humans, although the genetically influenced behaviour of "fussy eating" in children [16] [17] resembles the behaviour seen in animals.

Food neophobia relates to the omnivore's dilemma, a phenomenon that explains the choice that omnivores, and humans in particular, have between eating a new food and risking danger or avoiding it and potentially missing out on a valuable food source. Having at least some degree of food neophobia has been noted to be evolutionarily advantageous as it can help people to avoid eating potentially poisonous foods. [18]

Causes

Genetics seem to play a role in both food neophobia and general neophobia. Research shows that about two-thirds of the variation in food neophobia is due to genetics. A study done on twin pairs showed an even higher correlation, indicating that genetics do play a factor in food neophobia. [13]

Psychosocial factors can also increase a child's chances of developing food neophobia. Young children carefully watch parental food preferences, and this may produce neophobic tendencies with regard to eating if parents tend to avoid some foods. [19]

Another cause includes being more sensitive than average to bitter tastes, which may be associated with a significant history of middle ear infection or an increased perception of bitter foods, known as a supertaster. [19]

Treatment

Some efforts to address this situation, such as pressuring the child to eat a disliked food or threatening punishment for not eating it, tend to exacerbate the problem. [19]

Effective solutions include offering non-food rewards, such as a small sticker, for tasting a new or disliked food, and for parents to model the behavior they want to see by cheerfully eating the new or disliked foods in front of the children. [19]

Exposing someone to a new food increases the chances of liking that food item. However, it is not enough to merely look at a new food. Novel food must be repeatedly tasted in order to increase preference for eating it. [11] It can take as many as 15 tries of a novel food item before a child accepts it. There also appears to be a critical period for lowering later food neophobia in children during the weaning process. The variety of solid foods first exposed to children can lower later food refusal. Some researchers believe that even the food variety of a nursing mother and the consequent variety of flavors in her breastmilk can lead to greater acceptance of novel food items later on in life. Food neophobia does tend to naturally decrease as people age. [18]

See also

Related Research Articles

Appetite is the desire to eat food items, usually due to hunger. Appealing foods can stimulate appetite even when hunger is absent, although appetite can be greatly reduced by satiety. Appetite exists in all higher life-forms, and serves to regulate adequate energy intake to maintain metabolic needs. It is regulated by a close interplay between the digestive tract, adipose tissue and the brain. Appetite has a relationship with every individual's behavior. Appetitive behaviour also known as approach behaviour, and consummatory behaviour, are the only processes that involve energy intake, whereas all other behaviours affect the release of energy. When stressed, appetite levels may increase and result in an increase of food intake. Decreased desire to eat is termed anorexia, while polyphagia is increased eating. Dysregulation of appetite contributes to anorexia nervosa, bulimia nervosa, cachexia, overeating, and binge eating disorder.

Erotophobia is a term coined by a number of researchers in the late 1970s and early 1980s to describe one pole on a continuum of attitudes and beliefs about sexuality. The model of the continuum is a basic polarized line, with erotophobia at one end and erotophilia at the other end.

Photophobia is a medical symptom of abnormal intolerance to visual perception of light. As a medical symptom, photophobia is not a morbid fear or phobia, but an experience of discomfort or pain to the eyes due to light exposure or by presence of actual physical sensitivity of the eyes, though the term is sometimes additionally applied to abnormal or irrational fear of light, such as heliophobia. The term photophobia comes from the Greek φῶς (phōs), meaning "light", and φόβος (phóbos), meaning "fear".

Aquaphobia is an irrational fear of water.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Panphobia</span> Vague and persistent dread of some unknown evil

Panphobia, omniphobia, pantophobia, or panophobia is a vague and persistent dread of some unknown evil. Panphobia is not registered as a type of phobia in medical references.

Osmophobia or olfactophobia refers to a fear, aversion, or psychological hypersensitivity to odors. The phobia generally occurs in chronic migraine sufferers who may have odor triggered migraines. Such migraines are most frequently triggered by foul odors, but the hypersensitivity may extend to all odors. One study found as many as 25% of migraine sufferers had some degree of osmophobia. The condition may also be present in individuals in substance withdrawal, specifically opioid withdrawal syndrome, where it is usually associated with nausea and/or vomiting.

Phonophobia, also called ligyrophobia or sonophobia, is a fear of or aversion to loud sounds —a type of specific phobia. It is a very rare phobia which is often the symptom of hyperacusis. Sonophobia can refer to the hypersensitivity of a patient to sound and can be part of the diagnosis of a migraine. Occasionally it is called acousticophobia.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Fear of the dark</span> Common fear or phobia among children and, to a varying degree, adults

Fear of the dark is a common fear or phobia among children and, to a varying degree, adults. A fear of the dark does not always concern darkness itself; it can also be a fear of possible or imagined dangers concealed by darkness. Some degree of fear of the dark is natural, especially as a phase of child development. Most observers report that fear of the dark rarely appears before the age of two years. When fear of the dark reaches a degree that is severe enough to be considered pathological, it is sometimes called scotophobia, or lygophobia.

Gerontophobia is the fear of age-related self-degeneration, or a hatred or fear of the elderly due to memento mori. The term comes from the Greek γέρων – gerōn, "old man" and φόβος – phobos, "fear". Gerontophobia has been linked to Thanatophobia as fear of old age can be a precursor to fear of death. Gerontophobia can be caused by harmful stereotypes of elderly people displayed in the media

Mysophobia, also known as verminophobia, germophobia, germaphobia, bacillophobia and bacteriophobia, is a pathological fear of contamination and germs. It is classified as a type of specific phobia, meaning it is evaluated and diagnosed based on the experience of high levels of fear and anxiety beyond what is reasonable when exposed to or in anticipation of exposure to stimuli related to the particular concept. William A. Hammond first coined the term in 1879 when describing a case of obsessive–compulsive disorder (OCD) exhibited in repeatedly washing one's hands.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Taphophobia</span> Fear of being buried alive

Taphophobia is an abnormal (psychopathological) phobia of being buried alive as a result of being incorrectly pronounced dead.

Avoidant/restrictive food intake disorder (ARFID) is a feeding or eating disorder in which people avoid eating certain foods, or restrict their diets to the point it ultimately results in nutritional deficiencies. This can be due to the sensory characteristics of food, such as its appearance, smell, texture, or taste, and/or due to fear of negative consequences such as choking or vomiting; and/or having little interest in eating or food. People with ARFID may also be afraid of trying new foods, a fear known as neophobia.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Gephyrophobia</span> Anxiety disorder or phobia characterized by fear of bridges

Gephyrophobia is the anxiety disorder or specific phobia characterized by the fear of bridges and tunnels. As a result, sufferers of gephyrophobia may avoid routes that will take them over bridges, or if they are a passenger, will act very apprehensively when passing over a bridge. The term gephyrophobia comes from the Greek γέφυρα (gephura), meaning "bridge", and φόβος (phobos), meaning "fear".

Fear of fish or ichthyophobia ranges from cultural phenomena such as fear of eating fish, fear of touching raw fish, or fear of dead fish, up to irrational fear. Selachophobia, or galeophobia, is the specific fear of sharks.

According to the DSM-IV classification of mental disorders, the injury phobia is a specific phobia of blood/injection/injury type. It is an abnormal, pathological fear of having an injury.

Scopophobia, scoptophobia, or ophthalmophobia is an anxiety disorder characterized by a morbid fear of being seen in public or stared at by others.

Nosocomephobia is defined as the excessive fear of hospitals.

Dietary conservatism is a foraging strategy in which individuals show a prolonged reluctance to eat novel foods, even after neophobia has been overcome. Within any given population of foragers, some will be conservative and some will be adventurous, an alternative strategy in which individuals readily accept novel food immediately after neophobia has waned. Dietary conservatism and neophobia are however distinct processes, distinguished by the persistence of an individual's reluctance to eat over repeated encounters with novel food and over long time periods.

Leann L. Birch was an American developmental psychologist, best known for her research on children's eating behaviors.

A variety of behaviours whereby people are highly selective in what they eat and do not eat are known as picky eating or selective eating. Picky eating is common in younger children and can be a cause of concern for parents. It is also seen in many adults. There is no generally accepted definition of picky eating. It is generally associated with increased food neophobia. It can be associated with rejecting mixed or lumpy foods. It can also be associated with sensory sensitivity.

References

  1. ↑ Shim, Jae Eun; Kim, Juhee; Mathai, Rose Ann; STRONG Kids Research, Team. (September 2011). "Associations of Infant Feeding Practices and Picky Eating Behaviors of Preschool Children". Journal of the American Dietetic Association. 111 (9): 1363–1368. doi:10.1016/j.jada.2011.06.410. PMID   21872699.
  2. ↑ Dovey, Terence M.; Staples, Paul A.; Gibson, E. Leigh; Halford, Jason C.G. (March 2008). "Food neophobia and 'picky/fussy' eating in children: A review". Appetite. 50 (2–3): 181–193. doi:10.1016/j.appet.2007.09.009. PMID   17997196. S2CID   13024205.
  3. ↑ Perry, Rebecca A; Mallan, Kimberley M; Koo, Jasly; Mauch, Chelsea E; Daniels, Lynne A; Magarey, Anthea M (2015). "Food neophobia and its association with diet quality and weight in children aged 24 months: a cross sectional study". International Journal of Behavioral Nutrition and Physical Activity. 12 (1): 13. doi: 10.1186/s12966-015-0184-6 . PMC   4335451 . PMID   25889280.
  4. ↑ νέος, Henry George Liddell, Robert Scott, A Greek-English Lexicon, on Perseus
  5. ↑ φόβος, Henry George Liddell, Robert Scott, A Greek-English Lexicon, on Perseus
  6. ↑ καινός, Henry George Liddell, Robert Scott, A Greek-English Lexicon, on Perseus
  7. ↑ Cainophobia, Dictionary.com
  8. ↑ "The Phobia List".
  9. ↑ Meddock TD, Osborn DR (May 1968). "Neophobia in wild and laboratory mice". Psychonomic Science. 12 (5): 223. doi: 10.3758/BF03331280 . ISSN   0033-3131.
  10. ↑ Lalonde R, Badescu R (1995). "Exploratory drive, frontal lobe function and adipsia in aging". Gerontology. 41 (3): 134–44. doi:10.1159/000213674. PMID   7601365.
  11. 1 2 Logue, A.W. (2004). The Psychology of Eating and Drinking. New York: Brunner-Routledge. p. 90.
  12. ↑ Pliner, P.; K. Hobden (1992). "Development of a scale to measure the trait of food neophobia in humans". Appetite. 19 (2): 105–120. doi:10.1016/0195-6663(92)90014-w. PMID   1489209. S2CID   9530258.
  13. 1 2 Alley TR, Potter KA (2011). "Food Neophobia and Sensation Seeking". Handbook of Behavior, Food and Nutrition. Springer. pp. 707–724.
  14. ↑ Marples, Nicola M.; Kelly, David J.; Thomas, Robert J. (2005). "Perspective: The Evolution of Warning Coloration is Not Paradoxical". Evolution. 59 (5): 933–940. doi: 10.1111/j.0014-3820.2005.tb01032.x . ISSN   0014-3820. PMID   16136793. S2CID   24118222.
  15. ↑ Marples, N.M.; Kelly, D.J. (1999). "Neophobia and Dietary Conservatism:Two Distinct Processes?". Evolutionary Ecology. 13 (7–8): 641–653. doi:10.1023/A:1011077731153. ISSN   0269-7653. S2CID   27737756.
  16. ↑ Harris HA, Fildes A, Mallan KM, Llewellyn CH (July 2016). "Maternal feeding practices and fussy eating in toddlerhood: a discordant twin analysis". Int J Behav Nutr Phys Act. 13: 81. doi: 10.1186/s12966-016-0408-4 . PMC   4944306 . PMID   27412445.
  17. ↑ Smith AD, Herle M, Fildes A, Cooke L, Steinsbekk S, Llewellyn CH (February 2017). "Food fussiness and food neophobia share a common etiology in early childhood". J Child Psychol Psychiatry. 58 (2): 189–196. doi:10.1111/jcpp.12647. PMC   5298015 . PMID   27739065.
  18. 1 2 Dovey, Terence M. (2010). Eating Behaviour. England: Open University Press. pp. 47, 48, 55.
  19. 1 2 3 4 Moyer, Melinda Wenner (19 December 2012). "Picky eater kids: Their eating habits might be your fault, but they'll survive". Slate .
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