Peltigera

Last updated

Peltigera
Filtlav (Peltigera canina) i Skymlagardens mark, Sorby sn 2619.jpg
Peltigera canina
Scientific classification OOjs UI icon edit-ltr.svg
Domain: Eukaryota
Kingdom: Fungi
Division: Ascomycota
Class: Lecanoromycetes
Order: Peltigerales
Family: Peltigeraceae
Genus: Peltigera
Willd. (1787)
Type species
Peltigera canina
(L.) Willd. (1787)
Synonyms [1]
  • AntilyssaHaller ex M.Choisy (1929)
  • Byrsalis Neck. ex Kremp. (1869)
  • Chloropeltigera(Gyeln.) Gyeln. (1934)
  • Chloropeltis Clem. (1909)
  • Hydrothyria J.L.Russell (1856)
  • Peltidea Ach. (1803)
  • Peltideomyces E.A.Thomas (1939)
  • Peltigera sect. ChloropeltigeraGyeln. (1932)
  • PeltigeromycesE.A.Thomas ex Cif. & Tomas. (1953)
  • PeltophoraClem. (1909)
  • Placodion P.Browne ex Adans. (1763)

Peltigera is a genus of approximately 100 species of foliose lichens in the family Peltigeraceae. [2] Commonly known as the dog or pelt lichens, species of Peltigera are often terricolous (growing on soil), but can also occur on moss, trees, rocks, and many other substrates in many parts of the world. [3]

Contents

Most species of Peltigera have the cyanobacterium Nostoc as the dominant photobiont but some have the algae Coccomyxa. The presence of both a green alga and a cyanobacterium makes some tripartite; in this case they show cephalodium growths containing the third partner, Nostoc. Because of their ability to fix nitrogen from the atmosphere, such lichens are influential in soil composition and generation.

Description

Species of Peltigera are foliose, with broad lobed thalli. Although the size of the thalli is variable and species-dependent, in some species the thalli can grow quite large, up to 30 cm in diameter. [4] The color of the upper surface may range from drab gray, brown or greenish. Lower surfaces are typically without a cortex (unlike other foliose lichens), [5] and cottony, often with fungal hyphae fused to form a network of veins. The reproductive structures isidia, soredia or lobules may be present in some species. [6] All species of Peltigera associate with the nitrogen-fixing cyanobacteria Nostoc . [7] [8]

Peltigera can be distinguished from the equally large and leaf-like lichen, Nephroma , by its veined lower cortex; Nephroma, by contrast, has a smooth, unveiled lower cortex. [9]

Habitat

Peltigera are mainly ground-dwelling, but can also be found on mosses or dead wood. [9] Some species are used as forest succession indicators.

Taxonomy

In 1753, Linnaeus first described the species Lichen apthosus and L. caninus back when all known lichens were grouped into the genus Lichen. [10] Later, in 1787, Willdenow circumscribed the genus Peltigera, and redescribed P. aphthosa and P. canina . [11]

The generic name is derived from the Latin language pelta (small shield), and refers to the shield-shaped thallus in these species. The common name, the dog lichen, refers to the perceived resemblance of P. caninus to a dog. [12]

Phylogeny

In a comparative analysis of both morphological and chemical characteristics as well as sequences of large subunit nuclear ribosomal DNA, it was shown that the genus Peltigera is monophyletic. [13] Several species, such as P. canina , have been changed to a group as there appears to be several species clustered under a single name.

Distribution

The Peltigera have a widespread distribution, and are found on all continents. There are 34 North American species, 30 European species, 25 species from South America, and 16 species from New Zealand. [3] [4] [14] [15] There are 27 Peltigera species that have been recorded from China. [16]

Species

Peltigera aphthosa Apfelflechte Peltigera aphtosa OhWeh-005.jpg
Peltigera aphthosa
Peltigera leucophlebia Peltigera leucophlebia 300808a.jpg
Peltigera leucophlebia
Peltigera malacea Peltigera malacea 109220.jpg
Peltigera malacea
Peltigera membranacea Peltigera membranacea 78681.jpg
Peltigera membranacea

Uses

Peltigera species have been used historically to treat wounds, urinary disorders, thrush, tuberculosis, and rabies. [12] [32] [33] P. apthosa was used as a remedy for cough [34] and infantile aphthae. [35] P. furfuracea has shown potent antioxidant activity and reducing power. [36] Similarly, Peltigera specimens from Hawaii and Iceland have also been reported to show pronounced antioxidant activity. [37]

Food source

Although a few reports have described caribou and reindeer feeding on the thalli of Peltigera, [38] in general, species of Peltigera are not commonly used as a food source by mammals. [39] [40] A study of the grazing habits of the land snails Cantareus aspersa and Limax species revealed that these snails prefer to eat Peltigera species (such as P. praetextata ) that are lacking in secondary metabolites. [41]

Bioactive compounds

Peltigera leucophlebia contains the compounds tenuiorin and methyl orsellinate, which are inhibitory to the enzyme 15-lipoxygenase. [42] Tenuiorin is also known to occur in P. apthosa , P. malacea and P. neckeri . [43] A mixture of methyl and ethyl orsellinates have been identified from P. aphthosa that had antibacterial activity against Gram-positive and -negative bacteria. [44] The novel non-protein amino acids solorinine and peltigerine have been detected in various species of Peltigera. [45]

Related Research Articles

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Peltigeraceae</span> Family of lichenized fungi in the order Peltigerales

The Peltigeraceae are a family of lichens in the order Peltigerales. The Peltigeraceae, which contains 15 genera and about 600 species, has recently (2018) been emended to include the families Lobariaceae and Nephromataceae. Many Peltigeraceae species have large and conspicuous, leathery thalli. They largely occur in cool-temperate to tropical montane climates. Tripartite thalli involving fungus, green algae and cyanobacteria are common in this family.

<i>Sticta</i> Genus of lichens

Sticta is a genus of lichens in the family Peltigeraceae. The genus has a widespread distribution, especially in tropical areas, and includes about 114 species. These lichens have a leafy appearance, and are colored brown or black. Sticta species with cyanobacteria as photobionts can fix nitrogen from the atmosphere, and due to their relative abundance and high turnover, they contribute appreciably to the rainforest ecosystem. They are commonly called spotted felt lichens.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Arctomiaceae</span> Family of lichens

The Arctomiaceae are a family of lichenized fungi in the Ascomycota, class Baeomycetales. The family was named by Theodor Magnus Fries in 1861, with Arctomia as the type genus. Species in this family are found in arctic and subarctic habitats, usually associated with bryophytes.

Orvo Vitikainen is a Finnish lichenologist. He entered the University of Helsinki in 1961, from where he obtained a Candidate of Philosophy degree in 1966, and a Licentiate of Philosophy in 1971. He later earned a Ph.D. from this institution in 1994, under the supervision of Teuvo Ahti. Between the years 1961 and 1981 he was a junior curator of cryptogams at the University of Helsinki Botanical Garden, and then from 1983 to 2004 he was the head of the lichen herbarium. Here he managed the internationally valuable collections of the early lichenologists Erik Acharius and William Nylander. He has collected thousands of specimens for the herbarium from various locations in Finland, but also internationally, including Sweden, Norway, Denmark, Russian Karelia, Scotland, Austria, Italy, Hungary, Croatia, Montenegro, Tanzania, Kenya, British Columbia, and Brazil. In 1992–1994, he was a scientist of the Finnish Academy in the Ahti research group.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Emmanuël Sérusiaux</span> Belgian lichenologist

Emmanuël Sérusiaux is a Belgian lichenologist. His career, spanning more than four decades, has combined both lichenology research and political aspects of nature conservation. He spent several periods working as a researcher at the National Fund for Scientific Research and the University of Liège, the latter in which he accepted a faculty position as professor and head of the Plant Taxonomy and Conservation Biology unit. Sérusiaux also served for three non-consecutive appointments as Deputy Chief of Staff in the Government of Wallonia. He retired from both his academic and political positions in 2019.

Peltigera serusiauxii is a species of foliose lichen in the family Peltigeraceae. It is found in Papua New Guinea and Sabah, northern Borneo (Malaysia). It was described as a new species in 2020 by Nicolas Magain, Jolanta Miadlikowska, Bernard Goffinet, and Antoine Simon. The type was collected in Mount Gahavisuka Provincial Park, where it was found growing in a mostly undisturbed mossy mountain forest dominated by chinquapin trees. The specific epithet honours Belgian lichenologist Emmanuël Sérusiaux, "who substantially contributed to our understanding of the world-wide diversity of Peltigera, especially in Papua New Guinea where he collected the type material among several other specimens of this new species".

Peltigera papuana is a lichen-forming fungus in the family Peltigeraceae. It was described in 2009 from Madang Province of Papua New Guinea, which inspired its specific epithet. Genetic analysis of both the mycobiont and the photobiont, which is a Nostoc cyanobacterium, suggests that the evolutionary origin of Pelitgera papuana is from an ancient dispersal event from South America, although this remains inconclusive.

Peltigera wulingensis is a species of terricolous (ground-dwelling), foliose lichen in the family Peltigeraceae. Originally described from specimens found in northern China, it has since been recorded in Canada, Norway, and Russia.

<i>Dendriscosticta</i> Genus of lichens

Dendriscosticta is a genus of foliose lichens in the family Peltigeraceae. The genus was circumscribed in 2013 by lichenologists Bibiana Moncada and Robert Lücking with Dendriscosticta wrightii assigned as the type species. The genus, a segregate of Sticta, was created to contain species in the Sticta wrightii clade. Dendriscosticta has a sister taxon relationship with the genera Yoshimuriella and Lobariella. Dendriscosticta is distinguished from Sticta by the presence of algae in the excipulum.

Strangospora is a genus of lichen-forming fungi. It is the only genus in the family Strangosporaceae, which itself is of uncertain taxonomic placement in the Ascomycota. It contains 10 species.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Collematineae</span> Suborder of fungi

The Collematineae are an suborder of rust fungi in the order of Peltigerales in the class Lecanoromycetes.

Peltigera fimbriata is a species of foliose lichen in the family Peltigeraceae. Found in Papua New Guinea, it was formally described as a new species in 2009 by lichenologists Orvo Vitikainen, Emmanuël Sérusiaux, Bernard Goffinet, and Jolanta Miądlikowska. The type specimen was collected between Mt. Sarawaket Southern Range and Iloko village The species epithet fimbriata refers to the characteristic long hairs that occur on the upper thallus surface.

Peltigera granulosa is a species of terricolous (ground-dwelling), foliose lichen in the family Peltigeraceae. Found in Papua New Guinea, it was formally described as a new species in 2009 by Emmanuël Sérusiaux, Bernard Goffinet, Jolanta Miądlikowska, and Orvo Vitikainen. The type specimen was collected from open grassland between Gumum and Sape villages, where it was found growing on sand. The species epithet granulosa refers to its characteristic granulose margin.

Peltigera koponenii is a species of foliose lichen in the family Peltigeraceae. Found in Papua New Guinea, it was formally described as a new species in 2009 by Emmanuël Sérusiaux, Bernard Goffinet, Jolanta Miądlikowska, and Orvo Vitikainen. The type specimen was collected near Lake Wanba at an altitude of 2,400–2,500 m (7,900–8,200 ft), where it was found growing on a tree trunk in an open montane forest of Nothofagus and Pandanus. The species epithet honours Finnish bryologist Timo Koponen, "who made large and well processed collections of Peltigera in Papua New Guinea".

Peltigera montis-wilhelmii is a rare species of corticolous (bark-dwelling), foliose lichen in the family Peltigeraceae. Found in Papua New Guinea, it was formally described as a new species in 2009 by Emmanuël Sérusiaux, Bernard Goffinet, Jolanta Miądlikowska, and Orvo Vitikainen. The type specimen was collected from Pindaunde valley on Mount Wilhelm at an altitude of 3,600 m (11,800 ft). The species epithet refers to the type locality.

Peltigera weberi is a rare species of foliose lichen in the family Peltigeraceae. It is found in Papua New Guinea, where it grows on road banks and on earth and rock debris.

Peltigera seneca is a rare species of foliose lichen in the family Peltigeraceae. Native to eastern North America, it was first identified in Pennsylvania's Tioga State Forest, where it grows on humus and mossy rocks. It is similar to the Peltigera polydactylon, but with distinct genetic, geographic, and chemical characteristics. P. seneca is characterized by its small thalli with narrow lobes and a pale zone on margins of its lower thallus surface.

<i>Peltigera hydrophila</i> Species of lichen

Peltigera hydrophila is a species of foliose lichen in the family Peltigeraceae. First described in 2020, it distinguishes itself through a distinct, hairless thallus that turns deep blue-violet when it becomes wet. Found primarily in the Magallanes Region of Chile, this small leafy lichen clings closely to mosses and other substrates. Distinctive features include the always-present reddish-brown to dark brown apothecia and the Peltigera-type ascospores that contain three internal partitions, or septa. Despite sharing a habitat with similar species like P. aubertii and P. frigida, P. hydrophila sets itself apart through its unique thallus surface texture and colour. This semi-aquatic lichen primarily thrives in humid forests, shrubby and herbaceous vegetation in southern Chile, particularly near waterfalls, streams, and other wet environments.

<i>Peltigera cinnamomea</i> Species of lichen

Peltigera cinnamomea, the dog pelt or cinnamon-pelt lichen, is a species of muscicolous (moss-dwelling), foliose lichen in the family Peltigeraceae. The species was formally described by the Canadian lichenologist Trevor Goward in 1995. The lichen is found in forested regions of northwestern North America, particularly in the unique montane and subalpine forest communities of the northern Rocky Mountains. Notably, Peltigera cinnamomea thrives under prolonged snow cover, surviving well into the spring, which distinguishes it from many of the other Peltigera species that inhabit similar North American forest ecosystems.

<i>Peltigera castanea</i> Species of lichen

Peltigera castanea is a species of terricolous and muscicolous, foliose lichen in the family Peltigeraceae. Described as a new species in 2003, it is part of the taxonomically challenging species complex centred around Peltigera didactyla. Recognised based on phylogenetic studies that highlighted its unique genetic markers, P. castanea is distinguished by its dark, chestnut-coloured upper surface, which inspired its vernacular name, chestnut pelt lichen. Its known distribution includes North America, Asia, Europe (Estonia), Greenland, and the Antarctic. The conservation status of Peltigera castanea varies regionally, from being critically imperiled in British Columbia and Yukon to critically endangered in Estonia due to significant habitat degradation and restricted population size.

References

  1. ↑ "Synonymy: Peltigera Willd". Species Fungorum . Retrieved 25 August 2020.
  2. ↑ Wijayawardene, Nalin; Hyde, Kevin; Al-Ani, LKT; Dolatabadi, S; Stadler, Marc; Haelewaters, Danny; et al. (2020). "Outline of Fungi and fungus-like taxa". Mycosphere. 11: 1060–1456. doi: 10.5943/mycosphere/11/1/8 . hdl: 10481/61998 .
  3. 1 2 Martinez I, Burgaz AR, Vitikainen O, Escudero A (2003). "Distribution patterns in the genus Peltigera Willd". The Lichenologist. 35 (4): 301–323. doi:10.1016/S0024-2829(03)00041-0.
  4. 1 2 Vitikainen O. (1994). (1998). Taxonomic notes on neotropical species of Pelitgera. In: Lichenology in Latin America: history, current knowledge and applications. Edited by M. P. Marcelli, and M.R.D. Seaward. CETESB, Companhia de Tecnologia de Saneamento Ambiental, Estado de Sao Paulo. pp. 135-139.
  5. ↑ Fioliose lichens, Lichen Thallus Types, Allan Silverside
  6. ↑ Geiser, Linda; McCune, Bruce (1997). Macrolichens of the Pacific Northwest. Corvallis: Oregon State University Press. p. 198. ISBN   0-87071-394-9.
  7. ↑ Dodds WK, Gudder DA, Mollenhauer D (1995). "The ecology of Nostoc". Journal of Phycology. 31: 2–18. doi:10.1111/j.0022-3646.1995.00002.x.
  8. ↑ O'Brien HE, Miadlikowska J, Lutzoni F (2005). "Assessing host specialization in symbiotic cyanobacteria associated with four closely related species of the lichen fungus Peltigera". European Journal of Phycology. 40 (4): 363–378. doi: 10.1080/09670260500342647 .
  9. 1 2 "CNALH - Peltigera". lichenportal.org. Retrieved 2021-03-22.
  10. ↑ Linnaeus C. (1753). Species plantarum. Stockholm.
  11. ↑ Willdenow 1787
  12. 1 2 Sharnoff, Stephen; Brodo, Irwin M.; Sharnoff, Sylvia Duran (2001). Lichens of North America. New Haven, Conn: Yale University Press. ISBN   0-300-08249-5.
  13. ↑ Miadlikowska J, Lutzoni F (2004). "Phylogenetic classification of peltigeralean fungi (Peltigerales, Ascomycota) based on ribosomal RNA small and large subunits" (PDF). American Journal of Botany. 91 (3): 449–464. doi:10.3732/ajb.91.3.449. PMID   21653401. Archived from the original (PDF) on 2020-06-26.
  14. ↑ Goward T, Goffinet B, Vitikainen O (1995). "Synopsis of the genus Peltigera (lichenized Ascomycetes) in British Columbia, with a key to the North American species". Canadian Journal of Botany. 73: 91–111. doi:10.1139/b95-012.
  15. ↑ Galloway DJ (2000). "The lichen genus Peltigera (Peltigerales:Ascomycota) in New Zealand". Tuhinga. 11: 1–45.
  16. 1 2 Han, Liu-Fu; Zheng, Tian-Xin; Guo, Shou-Yu (2015). "A new species in the lichen genus Peltigera from northern China based on morphology and DNA sequence data". The Bryologist. 118 (1): 46–53. doi:10.1639/0007-2745-118.1.046.
  17. ↑ Kaasalainen, Ulla; Biermann, Lea; Mollel, Neduvoto P.; Schmidt, Alexander R.; Hemp, Andreas (2022). "Peltigera (Lecanoromycetes) on Mt Kilimanjaro, East Africa". The Lichenologist. 54 (5): 231–243. doi:10.1017/S0024282922000184.
  18. ↑ Goffinet, Bernard; Miadlikowska, Jolanta; Goward, Trevor (2003). "Phylogenetic inferences based on nrDNA sequences support five morphospecies within the Peltigera didactyla complex (lichenized Ascomycota)". The Bryologist. 106 (3): 349–364. doi:10.1639/01.
  19. ↑ Goward, Trevor; Goffinet, Bernard; Vitikainen, Orvo (1995). "Synopsis of the genus Peltigera (lichenized Ascomycetes) in British Columbia, with a key to the North American species". Canadian Journal of Botany. 73 (1): 91–111. doi:10.1139/b95-012.
  20. 1 2 3 4 5 Sérusiaux, E.; Goffinet, B.; Miadlikowska, J.; Vitikainen, O. (2009). "Taxonomy, phylogeny and biogeography of the lichen genus Peltigera in Papua New Guinea". Fungal Diversity. 38 (1): 185–224.
  21. ↑ Santesson, R. (1944). "Contribution to the lichen flora of South America". Arkiv før Botanik. 31A (7): 1–28 [11].
  22. ↑ Manoharan-Basil, Sheeba S.; Miadlikowska, Jolanta; Goward, Trevor; Andrésson, Ólafur S.; Miao, Vivian P.W. (2016). "Peltigera islandica, a new cyanolichen species in section Peltigera ('P. canina group')". The Lichenologist. 48 (5): 451–467. doi:10.1017/S0024282916000414.
  23. 1 2 3 Vitikainen, O. (1985). "Three new species of Peltigera (lichenized Ascomycetes)". Annales Botanici Fennici. 22 (4): 291–298.
  24. ↑ Dodge, C.W.; Rudolph, E.D. (1955). "Lichenological notes on the flora of the Antarctic Continent and the subantarctic islands. I-IV". Annals of the Missouri Botanical Garden. 42 (2): 131–149.
  25. ↑ Holtan-Hartwig, J. (2005). "Peltigera latiloba, a new lichen species from Norway and USA (Alaska)". Graphis Scripta. 17 (2): 34–34.
  26. ↑ Goffinet, B.; Miadlikowska, J. (1999). "Peltigera phyllidiosa (Peltigeraceae, Ascomycotina), a new species from the Southern Appalachians corroborated by ITS sequences". The Lichenologist. 31 (3): 247–256.
  27. ↑ Magain, Nicolas; Sérusiaux, Emmanuël; Zhurbenko, Mikhail P.; Lutzoni, François; Miądlikowska, Jolanta (2016). "Disentangling the Peltigera polydactylon species complex by recognizing two new taxa, P. polydactylon subsp. udeghe and P. seneca". Herzogia. 29 (2): 514–528. doi:10.13158/heia.29.2.2016.514.
  28. ↑ Magain, Nicolas; Goffinet, Bernard; Simon, Antoine; Seelan, Jaya Seelan Sathiya; Medeiros, Ian Daniel; Lutzoni, François; Miadlikowska, Jolanta (2020). "Peltigera serusiauxii (Lecanoromycetes, Ascomycota), a new species from Papua New Guinea and Malaysia". Plant and Fungal Systematics. 65 (1): 139–146. doi: 10.35535/pfsyst-2020-0009 .
  29. ↑ Han, Liu-Fu; Yang, Jing-Yuan; Beu, Shu-Qing; Guo, Shou-Yu (2019). "Peltigera shennongjiana, a new cyanolichen from Central China". The Lichenologist. 51 (6): 561–574. doi:10.1017/s0024282919000355.
  30. ↑ Gyelnik, Vilmos (1929). "Lichenologische Mitteilungen". Magyar Botanikai Lapok (in German). 28: 57–65.
  31. ↑ Han, Liu-Fu; Zhang, Ya-Ya; Guo, Shou-Yu (2013). "Peltigera wulingensis, a new lichen (Ascomycota) from north China". The Lichenologist. 45 (3): 329–336. doi:10.1017/s0024282912000837.
  32. ↑ Negi HR, Kareem A (1996). "Lichens: the unsung heroes". Amruth. 1 (4): 3–6.
  33. ↑ Moerman, Daniel E. (1998). Native American ethnobotany. Portland, Or: Timber Press. ISBN   0-88192-453-9.
  34. ↑ Perez-Llano GA (1944). "Lichens. Their biological and economical significance". Botanical Review. 10: 27–40. doi:10.1007/bf02861799.
  35. ↑ Vartia KO. (1950). On the medicinal use of lichens. Academic dissertation. Helsinki: 11–21.
  36. ↑ Odabasoglu F, Aslan A, Cakir A, et al. (March 2005). "Antioxidant activity, reducing power and total phenolic content of some lichen species". Fitoterapia. 76 (2): 216–9. doi:10.1016/j.fitote.2004.05.012. PMID   15752633.
  37. ↑ Hagiwara K, Wright PR, et al. (March 2015). "Comparative analysis of the antioxidant properties of Icelandic and Hawaiian lichens". Environmental Microbiology. 18 (8): 2319–25. doi:10.1111/1462-2920.12850. PMID   25808912.
  38. ↑ Palmqvist K (2000). "Tansley Review No. 117. Carbon economy in lichens". New Phytologist. 148 (1): 11–36. doi: 10.1046/j.1469-8137.2000.00732.x . PMID   33863029.
  39. ↑ Maser Z, Maser C, Trapper JM (1985). "Food habits of the northern flying squirrel (Glaucomys sabrinus) in Oregon". Canadian Journal of Zoology. 63 (5): 1084–1088. doi:10.1139/z85-162.
  40. ↑ Kallman S (1992). "Wild plants as food during survival situations". Sven Bot Tidsk. 86 (2): 49–52.
  41. ↑ Benesperi R, Tretiach M (2004). "Differential land snail damage to selected species of the lichen genus Peltigera". Biochemical Systematics and Ecology. 32 (2): 127–138. doi:10.1016/S0305-1978(03)00141-8.
  42. ↑ Ingólfsdóttir K, Gudmundsdóttir GF, Ogmundsdóttir HM, Paulus K, Haraldsdóttir S, Kristinsson H, Bauer R (2002). "Effects of tenuiorin and methyl orsellinate from the lichen Peltigera leucophlebia on 5-/15-lipoxygenases and proliferation of malignant cell lines in vitro". Phytomedicine. 9 (7): 654–658. doi:10.1078/094471102321616481. PMID   12487331.
  43. ↑ Holtan-Hartwig J (1993). "The lichen genus Peltigera exclusive of the P. canina group, in Norway". Sommerfeltia. 15: 3–77. doi: 10.2478/som-1993-0001 .
  44. ↑ Ingólfsdóttir K, Bloomfield SF, Hylands PJ (1985). "In vitro evaluation of the antimicrobial activity of lichen metabolites as potential preservatives". Antimicrob. Agents Chemother. 28 (2): 289–92. doi:10.1128/aac.28.2.289. PMC   180233 . PMID   3834834.
  45. ↑ Matsubara H, Kinoshita Y, Yamamoto Y, Kurokawa T, Yoshimura I, Takahashi K (1999). "Distribution of new quaternary ammonium compounds, solorinine and peltigerine, in the Peltigerales". Bryologist. 102 (2): 196–199. doi:10.2307/3244359. JSTOR   3244359.

Further reading

Gilbert, O. Lichens Naturally Scottish. 2004. Scottish Natural Heritage. ISBN   1-85397-373-4

This page is based on this Wikipedia article
Text is available under the CC BY-SA 4.0 license; additional terms may apply.
Images, videos and audio are available under their respective licenses.