Science diplomacy

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Science diplomacy is the process by which states represent themselves and their interests in the international arena [1] as well as the use of scientific collaborations among nations, international organizations and non-state actors to address common problems and to build international partnerships. Science diplomacy has become an umbrella term to describe a number of formal or informal technical, research-based, academic or engineering exchanges. The term science diplomacy only became popular in the 2010s, as a description of the need for new strategic partnerships. Until then, science diplomacy initiatives were often called “smart power” or “soft power” by those in the field. Science diplomacy can be seen as a sub-field of international relations [2] [3] [4] and typically involves at some level interactions between scholars and officials involved in diplomacy, [5] although whether scientist diplomats or diplomat scientists are more effective is an open question. [6] The theoretical framework of science diplomacy is under scrutiny, as it grapples with the tension between idealistic goals and practical demands in an era characterised by new conflicts and global crises. The majority of critics who have examined the original concept have highlighted the significant vulnerability of science as a public good. [7]

Contents

History

International negotiations on the environment, global health crises, geopolitical power politics, and intelligence gathering are neither recent concerns nor unconnected to other crucial areas of global politics and scholarly interest. International affairs and science diplomacy have a long history together; their intersection can be traced back to at least the 18th century. [3] Forms of science diplomacy were also apparent in the great voyages of exploration and colonization brought with them science-based diplomacy as a form of diplomacy of influence. [8]

Notable developments in science diplomacy can arise as the result of scientific conferences and can feature the creation of international organizations to promote science diplomacy. One of the earliest ventures in joint scientific cooperation was in 1931 with the creation of the International Council of Scientific Unions, now the International Council of Science (ICSU).Through partnerships with international science unions and national science members, the ICSU focuses resources and tools towards the further development of scientific solutions to the world's challenges such as climate change, sustainable development, polar research, and the universality of science. [9]

In the interwar period, scientific offices were installed worldwide. One of the earliest examples of science diplomacy in Australia was the 1926 recommendation by Sir Frank Heath to the Australian Government. Frank Heath was the Secretary of the UK Department of Scientific and Industrial Research from 1916 to 1927 and came to Australia in 1926 to advise the Australian Government on how to set up a Council for Scientific and Industrial Research as part of his suggestions for the reconstitution of the Commonwealth Institute of Science and Industry. The Australian Government agreed, and appointed Frank Lidgett McDougalas its Scientific Liaison Officer in London in 1927 to deal with questions of scientific progress and policy. [10]

American stamp of 1955 in allusion to the program Atoms for Peace Atoms for Peace stamp.jpg
American stamp of 1955 in allusion to the program Atoms for Peace

The first major post-World War II science-based diplomatic initiative was the newly formed United Nations Atomic Energy Commission to stop an atomic arms race. [11] When this failed, the Cold War begun, [12] and the United States developed a separate fission energy diplomatic program, the 'Atoms for Peace' initiative. [13] This initative provided the basis for the later founding of the International Atomic Energy Commission (IAEA). [14]

The Cold War involved the development of strategic scientific relations between historical or potential rival countries or blocs as a way to promote scientific cooperation to the extent that it could hedge against diplomatic failures and reduce the potential for conflict. During this period, the United States was far from the only state pursuing diplomatic initiatives related to either nuclear weapons or the peaceful use of nuclear energy.  For example, Atoms for Peace and the 1954 Castle Bravo thermonuclear weapons test contributed to Japan’s Ministry of Foreign Affairs intensifying its diplomatic activities on nuclear issues as part of a wider range of science-related activities, including initiating a science attaché program in 1954 and creating a dedicated Science Division in 1958. [15]

The civilian scientific exchanges between the United States and the then Soviet Union throughout the Cold War provide a well-known example of science diplomacy. These collaborations linked the two countries when official diplomatic connections were stalled. [16] Today, the U.S. and Russia work together on the International Space Station and on the nuclear fusion science experiment International Thermonuclear Experimental Reactor (ITER).

The emergence of blocs during the Cold War also saw the deployment of technology as a means of influencing less developed countries, with the Cold War bringing ideologically bloc-based science diplomacy, in areas such as space exploration and the development of fission reactors and weapons, to its ultimate incarnation. [2] Developing countries also engaged in technology diplomacy as part of cross-bloc competition, such as the People’s Republic of China using everything from the development of new flood control techniques in the 1950s to the launch of its first artificial satellite in 1970 as part of its “people’s diplomacy” strategies. Such science-related outreach was an important part of China’s foreign relations during the decades before its entry into the United Nations in 1971  and accompanying rapid expansion in its normalized diplomatic relations with other countries. [17]

John F. Kennedy established a science and technology cooperation agreement with Japan in 1961 following appeals to repair the "broken dialogue" between the two countries' intellectual communities after World War II. That agreement helped round out a tenuous relationship at the time rooted only in security concerns. [18] Yet, even in the immediate post-Second World War period, there were examples of US-Japan cooperation in science and technology, such as in the co-production and cooperation between Japanese scientists and American science administrators in the founding of the Science Council of Japan. [19]

The early 1970s brought fundamental transitions in international scientific collaboration. [20] In the 1970s, Henry Kissinger requested, and took, several science initiatives to his talks with China. These initiatives focused on areas in which both countries could participate; as evidenced in the Shanghai Communiqués. In 1979, when official diplomatic ties were established between China and the U.S., science played a big role in the shaping of renewed efforts, and December 2010 marked the 30th anniversary of normalized relations between the United States and China. [21] In the 1970s, scientists featured prominently in the early exchanges and initiatives that were a part of the Sino-American rapprochement process leading to normalization of relations in 1979. Exchanges related to science and technology were explicitly mentioned in the Shanghai Communiqué. [22]

The term "science diplomacy" gained popularity during the Obama administration. [23] [24] Strategies involved the development of scientific relations between historical or potential rival countries or blocs as a way to promote scientific cooperation to the extent that it could hedge against diplomatic failures and reduce the potential for conflict. At that time, calls for the promotion of science diplomacy emerged in earnest, especially between the West and former Soviet Union countries. [24] [25] [26] [27] In 2009, President Barack Obama called for partnership during his “A New Beginning” speech in Cairo, Egypt. [28] These partnerships would include a greater focus on engagement of the Muslim world through science, technology, and innovation building and connecting scientists from the United States to scientists in Muslim-majority countries. [29]

Definition and types of activity

The attempts to conceptualise science diplomacy are still ongoing. There exists neither a clear-cut definition of the term nor a consensus on science diplomacy's stakeholders, instruments and activities. Along with e.g. economic, digital, cultural diplomacy or para-diplomacy, science diplomacy is a subcategory of the so-called new diplomacy, as opposed to the long-standing traditional diplomacy known to date. [30] [31] [32] [33] [34] Science diplomacy as a discourse draws the attention of multiple social actors who present diverse interpretations of the concept. The debate is attended by researchers who study the history of science diplomacy or treat it as an empirical object as well as by actors who are or have been involved in science diplomacy practices. These are career diplomats, science counsellors/advisers, experts to national and international decision-making bodies and politicians.

Therefore, the definition of science diplomacy is not based on analytical categories but draws its meaning from a compilation of different narratives, approaches and ideas of changing and sometimes contested relations between science and foreign policy and the evolution of diplomacy and international relations per se. [35] [36] [37] [38]

However in 2010, the Royal Society and the American Association for the Advancement of Science [39] coinced a widely used analytical tool. They have categorized science diplomacy in three main types of activities:

Science diplomacy and international organizations

United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organisation UNESCO logo English.svg
United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organisation

Science diplomacy involves the direct promotion of a country's interests and/or is is taken to involve the meeting of global challenges and needs. Science as a tool for diplomacy has been used for several decades by many countries around the world, [21] [40] but international organizations are also relevant promoters and users of science diplomacy. Science diplomacy can be seen as a form of networked and transnational governance, [41] [42] including via the United Nations system, especially via bodies such as UNESCO. [43]

In 1967, the African Scientific Institute was created to help African scientists reach others through published materials, conferences, seminars and provide tools for those who lack them. [44] And in 1996, countries with interests in the Arctic came together to form the Arctic Council to discuss sustainable development and environmental protection. [45] [46] The European Union is also concerned with science diplomacy, fostering science collaboration as a way to make diplomacy through "parallel means". [47] Several EU-funded projects are currently exploring and conducting research on the topic of science diplomacy. In some cases, science diplomacy is not the obvious prelimiary goal of an organization, apparent in the intergovernmental military alliance of NATO, which in 1958 established a Science Committee and the position of a Science Advisor. [48] NATO "pioneered science diplomacy, because its officials sought to use the promotion of science as a diplomatic channel (or ‘backchannel’), especially in critical moments of the alliance’s history when the allies could only agree to disagree". [49]

Two international organizations are often seen as models of science diplomacy: the European Organization for Nuclear Research (CERN), created in 1954 following a series of meetings, UNESCO hearings and a formal ratification by 12 initial member nations. At present, CERN is run by 20 European member states, [50] but many non-European countries are also involved in different ways. Scientists from some 608 institutes and universities around the world use CERN's facilities. [51] Another example is ITER, an engineering megaproject in France, which will be the world's largest magnetic confinement plasma physics experiment when it begins plasma operations. ITER began in 1985 as a Reagan–Gorbachev initiative with the equal participation of the Soviet Union, the European Atomic Energy Community, the United States, and Japan through the 1988–1998 initial design phases. The engineering studies for ITER continued after the Cold War ended but the post-9/11 era brought new dimensions. [52]

Science diplomacy and non-state actors

In addition to international organizations, non-state actors who are not connected with the government have also practiced science diplomacy. For example, in 1957, American philanthropist Cyrus Eaton hosted a meeting of 22 scientists (seven from the United States, three each from the Soviet Union and Japan, two each from the United Kingdom and Canada, and one each from Australia, Austria, China, France, and Poland) in Pugwash, Canada. [53] The stimulus for the gathering was a Manifesto issued on 9 July 1955 by Bertrand Russell and Albert Einstein which called upon scientists of all political persuasions to assemble to discuss the threat posed to civilization by the advent of thermonuclear weapons. [54] The meetings eventually grew and gathered the attention of high level government officials. Since then, scientists have continued to gather at the Pugwash Conferences. Such informal initiatives illustrae Track II science diplomacy. [55] A specific form of Track II can be described as science diplomacy "from below", i.e. the launch of campaigns beyond state regulation and outside of official diplomatic arenas. [56] [57]

Similar to the iniative of non-state actors, non-profit organizations have continued science diplomacy practices in their work. CRDF Global, in partnership with the U.S. Department of State, launched the Global Innovation through Science and Technology (GIST). [58] In addition to the GIST Initiative, CRDF Global has been active in the United States and in the Middle East on promoting science diplomacy through conferences, panel discussions and programs including the Iraqi Virtual Science Library, Maghreb Virtual Science Library, and the Afghanistan Virtual Science Library. Further, the American Association for the Advancement of Science (AAAS) established the Center for Science Diplomacy. [59] Its goal is to use science and scientific cooperation to promote international understanding by providing a forum for scientists, policy analysts, and policy-makers to share information and explore collaborative opportunities. In March 2012, the center launched the quarterly publication Science & Diplomacy . [60] [61] [62] Others non-profit organizations, such as the Science and Development Network (SciDev.Net) have dedicated an entire portion of their website for science diplomacy related articles and events.

Challenges to science diplomacy in the 21st century

Many of the global challenges related to health, economic growth, and climate change lay at the intersection of science and international relations. [63] There are numerous patterns via which scientific and technological advances influence international relations, including as a juggernaut or escaped genie with rapid and wide-ranging ramifications for the international system; as a game-changer and a conveyor of advantage and disadvantage to different actors in the international system; as a source of risks, issues and problems that must be addressed and managed by the international community; as key dimensions or enablers of international macro phenomena; as instruments of foreign policy or sources of technical information for the management of an ongoing international regime; as the subject of projects and institutions whose planning, design, implementation and management provide grist for the mill of international relations and diplomacy. [64]

In the 21st century, there is a long list of specific themes for science diplomacy to address, including “the rising risks and dangers of climate change, a spread of infectious diseases, increasing energy costs, migration movements, and cultural clashes”. [40] Other areas of interest include space exploration; [65] the exploration of fundamental physics (e.g., CERN [66] and ITER [67] ); the management of the polar regions; [2] [68] health research; [69] the oil and mining sectors; [70] fisheries; [71] and international security, [72] including global cybersecurity, [73] as well as enormous geographic areas, such as the transatlantic [41] and Indo-Pacific regions. [74] Increasingly, science diplomacy has come to be seen as a multilateral endeavor to address both global challenges and the matter of global goods, via science internationals (such as the Malta Conferences [75] ); international NGOs, especially UN bodies; and various science-policy interfaces, [2] such as the U.S. National Academies system.

Science diplomacy suggests a means for helping manage paradigmatic and disruptive change. For instance, the sheer scale of the problem of climate change has caused researchers to call for the reinvention of science communication in order to address humanity's cognitive limits in coping with such a crisis, [76] with the International Panel on Climate Change alone constituting a science-diplomacy nexus. [2] Especially within the context of the Sustainable Development Goals, the first calls to begin seeing science and its products as global public goods which should be tasked to fundamentally improve the human condition, especially in countries which are facing catastrophic change, are being made. [77] While both science and technology create new risks in and of themselves, they can also alert humanity of risks, such as global warming, in both cases transforming commerce, diplomacy, intelligence, investment, and war. [64] Science diplomacy challenges the way international relations operates as a field of human endeavor, presenting a ‘boundary problem’ involving actors from different social worlds. [78]

On March 12, 2010, Congressman Howard Berman (D-CA) and Congressman Jeff Fortenberry (R-NE) introduced the Global Science Program for Security, Competitiveness, and Diplomacy Act, [79] which proposed an increase in the application of science and scientific engagement in US foreign policy. Additionally, several non-profit organizations in the United States have continued science diplomacy practices in their work. CRDF Global, in partnership with the U.S. Department of State, launched the Global Innovation through Science and Technology (GIST) [58] initiative in 2010 in Egypt with follow-up meetings in Malaysia and Morocco in 2011. In addition to the GIST Initiative, CRDF Global has been active in both the United States and in the Middle East on promoting science diplomacy through conferences, panel discussions and programs including the Iraqi Virtual Science Library, Maghreb Virtual Science Library, and the Afghanistan Virtual Science Library.

The Malta Conferences Foundation seeks to provide a bridge to peace in the Middle East through science diplomacy. [80] Starting in 2001, Dr. Zafra Lerman began working with the American Chemical Society Subcommittee on Scientific Freedom and Human Rights to develop a scientific conference that would bring together researchers from many different, often mutually hostile, nations in the Middle East so they could cooperatively work toward solving problems facing the region. With support from the American Chemical Society (ACS), International Union of Pure and Applied Chemistry (IUPAC), the Royal Society of Chemistry (RSC - England), and the Gesellschaft Deutscher Chemiker, the first conference was held on the island of Malta from December 6 to 11, 2003. [81] [82] The organizers followed up by hosting a second meeting two years later, Malta II. [83] Lerman led the initiative to continue with the conferences and founded the Malta Conferences Foundation to support them. She secured the support of UNESCO, the United Nations Educational, Scientific, and Cultural Organization. The American Association for the Advancement of Science awarded Zafra Lerman the 2014 Award for Science Diplomacy. [84]

In December 2018, the “Madrid Declaration on Science Diplomacy” was signed by a group of high-level experts. It proclaims a common vision of science diplomacy in the future, emphasises the benefits science diplomacy can bring to tackling the global challenges of our time and outlines the principles needed to foster science diplomacy worldwide. [85]

Science diplomacy, health and pandemics

Global organizations, researchers, public health officials, countries, government officials, and clinicians have worked together to create effective measures of infection control and subsequent treatment. They continue to do so through sharing of resources, research data, ideas, and by putting into effect laws and regulations that can further advance scientific research. Without the collaborative efforts of such entities, the world would not have the vaccines and treatments we now possess for diseases that were once considered deadly such as tuberculosis, tetanus, polio, influenza, etc. Historically, science diplomacy has proved successful in diseases such as SARS, Ebola, Zika and continues to be relevant during the COVID-19 pandemic today.

During epidemics and pandemics, vaccines and drugs are an effective method for reducing incidence and mortality from diseases. Economically underdeveloped countries often face obstacles that hinder timely development and deployment of vaccines during times of crises, including structural barriers (which make transport more difficult) and monetary barriers. As a result, the collaboration with international institutions are important to develop and distribute treatments that can mitigate the effects of the outbreak. In the past, institutions including large pharmaceutical corporations have donated vaccine doses to underdeveloped countries, and charitable organizations have funded trials to test the efficacy of the vaccine. [86] [87] These collaborations are exemplified in various nations’ responses to the malaria, rotavirus, HIV/Aids, HPV, and COVID-19 outbreaks. [88]

Science diplomacy and space

With the rise of privatized space exploration and the growing competition with nations across the globe in the new age space race, space diplomacy refers to a globalized effort by scientists, national officials, and private corporations to reach a consensus on what is safe, effective, and sustainable space travel. In addition to possible space jurisdictions to each country interested in space travel, science diplomacy and space, or space diplomacy, can involve considerations towards environmental pollution or a set of international laws and legislations, such as the Outer Space Treaty.

Science diplomacy and branding

Instead of showcasing military power in international relations, public relations have become the core of public diplomacy. With the fragile and complex political realities among nations, through leveraging global challenges, e.g., climate change, terrorism, and recent pandemics, public diplomacy becomes a strategic trigger to position a nation or tackle some critical challenges. Branding, seen as a creative tool used by policymakers towards individual projects, national policy sectors, or nation-states, can be used as a tool for science diplomacy. Three layers of branding have been identified: place branding, policy branding, and policy tool branding. Place branding is often used in policy-making, as is the case of countries like Singapore, Taiwan, and the United Arab Emirates, which use education policies to attract foreign universities and position their countries as science-oriented. Also, public health policy during pandemics uses policy branding, especially for social campaigns. Despite the paucity of research on how branding can aid science diplomacy, it can be part of the equation to advance science diplomacy. [89] [90] [91]

See also

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