Sports periodization

Last updated

Periodization is a cyclical method of planning and managing athletic or physical training and involves progressive cycling of various aspects of a training program during a specific period. [1] [2] Conditioning programs can use periodization to break up the training program into the off-season, preseason, inseason, and the postseason. Periodization divides the year round condition program into phases of training which focus on different goals.

Contents

History

The roots of periodization come from Hans Selye's model, known as the General adaptation syndrome (GAS). The GAS describes three basic stages of response to stress: (a) the Alarm stage, involving the initial shock of the stimulus on the system, (b) the Resistance stage, involving the adaptation to the stimulus by the system, and (c) the Exhaustion stage, in that repairs are inadequate, and a decrease in system function results. The foundation of periodic training is keeping one's body in the resistance stage without ever going into the exhaustion stage. By adhering to cyclic training the body is given adequate time to recover from significant stress before additional training is undertaken. The goal in sports periodization is to reduce the stress at the point where the resistance stage ends so the body has time to recover. In this way the exhaustion stage does not reduce the gains achieved, the body can recover and remain above the original equilibrium point. The next cycle of increased stimulus now improves the response further and the equilibrium point continues to rise after each cycle.

Selye (1957) labeled beneficial stresses as "eustress" and detrimental stresses as "distress". In athletics, when physical stress is at a healthy level (eustress), an athlete experiences muscular strength and growth, while excessive physical stress (distress) can lead to tissue damage, disease, and death. Periodization is most widely used in resistance program design to avoid over-training and to systematically alternate high loads of training with decreased loading phases to improve components of muscular fitness (e.g. strength, strength-speed, and strength-endurance). The Selye-cycles are similar to the "micro cycles" used at later times.

Russian physiologist Leo Matveyev and Romanian sport scientist Tudor Bompa expanded and further organized the periodization model. Matveyev is regarded as one of the first to demonstrate a formalized model of periodization around 1964. [3] He analysed the results of the Soviet athletes of the 1952 and 1956 summer Olympics and compared successful and not so successful athletes and their training schedules. [4] From these training plans periodized schedules were developed for the 1960 Olympics. With the success of the Soviet athletes, Matveyev's plans were spread all over the Eastern Bloc in their annual coordination meetings. [5] In the United States in 1979, J. Garhammer published one the first articles relating to periodization of strengthing training in athletes. Around that same time, James 'Doc' Counsilman, at the University of Indiana, talked about the periodization training that he has been using for years with swimmers. [6] [3]

In 1988, Grigori Goldstein, a Soviet defector shared information about periodization with American strength and conditioning coaches, including Johnny Parker. This information was published in the 2018 book The System: Soviet Periodization Adapted For the American Strength Coach. [7]

Theory of planning

Periodic training systems typically divide time up into three types of cycles: microcycle, mesocycle, and macrocycle.

The macrocycle

A macrocycle refers to a season of training in its entirety. It is an annual plan that works towards peaking for the goal competition of the year. [8]

There are three phases in the macrocycle: preparation, competitive, and transition. [9] The entire preparation phase should be around 2/3 to 3/4 of the macrocycle. The preparation phase is further broken up into general and specific preparation of which general preparation takes over half. An example of general preparation would be building an aerobic base for an endurance athlete such as running on a treadmill and learning any rules or regulations that would be required such as proper swimming stroke as not to be disqualified. An example of specific preparation would be to work on the proper form to be more efficient and to work more on the final format of the sport, which is to move from the treadmill to the pavement.

The competitive phase can be several competitions, but they lead up to the main competition with specific tests. Testing might include any of the following: performance level, new shoes or gear, a new race tactic might be employed, pre-race meals, ways to reduce anxiety before a race, or the length needed for the taper. When the pre-competitions are of a higher priority there is a definite taper stage while lower priority might simply be integrated in as training. The competitive phase ends with the taper and the competition.

Macrocycles are broken down into mesocycles and microcycles. [10]

The mesocycle

A mesocycle represents a specific training block within your season, such as a strength building or endurance phase. [11] A mesocycle can also be defined as a number of continuous weeks where the training program emphasize the same type of physical adaptations, for example muscle mass and anaerobic capacity. During the preparatory phase, a mesocycle commonly consists of 4 – 6 micro-cycles, while during the competitive phase it will usually consist of 2 – 4 micro-cycles depending on the competition's calendar.

The goal of the plan is to fit the mesocycles into the overall plan timeline-wise to make each mesocycle end on one of the phases and then to determine the workload and type of work of each cycle based on where in the overall plan the given mesocycle falls. The goal in mind is to make sure the body peaks for the high priority competitions by improving each cycle along the way.

The microcycle

A microcycle is the smallest training set and typically lasts around a week. The main focus of a microcycle is a small focused block of training, such as two or three days of very hard training followed by the same about of time for recovery. [12] Each microcycle is planned based on where it is in the overall macrocycle. [9]

A microcycle is also defined as a number of training sessions, built around a given combination of acute program variables, which include progression as well as alternating effort (heavy vs. light days). The length of the microcycle should correspond to the number of workouts - empirically often 4-16 workouts - it takes for the athlete or fitness client to adapt to the training program. When the athlete or fitness client has adapted to the program and no longer makes progress, a change to one or more program variables should be made.

The annual plan

The annual plan is important in that it directs and guides performance training over a year. It is based on the concept of periodization and the principles of training. The objective of training is to reach a high level of performance (peak performance) and an athlete has to develop skills, biomotor abilities and psychological traits in a methodical manner. [13]

Preparatory phase

This phase consists of the general preparation and specific preparation. Usually which can be subdivided into three different phases. One should always remember that this is a base creation phase with the objective to attain the previous training state, and the longest period of periodization must be devoted towards the preparatory period. The performance depends on preparatory period, and is divided into three phases:

Phase I) To regain previous training

Phase II) Low training volume & High training load to develop the factors needed for performance.

Phase III) Decrease in the intensity of load and increase in tactical training and aim at improving tactical under competition condition. [14]

Competitive phase

This phase may contain a few main competitions each containing a pre-competitive and a main competition. Within the main competition, an uploading phase and a special preparatory phase may be included.

Transition phase

This phase is used to facilitate psychological rest, relaxation and biological regeneration as well as to maintain an acceptable level of general physical preparation. This phase lasts 3–4 weeks (perhaps longer) but should not exceed five weeks under normal conditions and may be sports specific. It allows the body to fully regenerate so that it is prepared for the next discipline. [15]

Opposition to periodization

A review published in the journal 'Sports Medicine' in 2017 has questioned the validity of the use of traditional models of periodization in sport. This is largely due to the oversimplified assumptions put forward in the early development of periodization theory that are not always transferable to the psycho-biological effects of various training methods used in sport. [16]

Periodization has been questioned due to it being viewed as reductionist/deterministic. In coaching in particular it is oversimplified and doesn't take into account the true nature of coaching which is viewed as a dynamic, chaotic and forever changing environment. Periodization fails to consider the athlete, coach and the context of the coaching taking place. The improvement of an athlete or a team in sports varies depending on an individual's hormonal response, genetic predispositions, motivation, stress levels, as well as transient social and environmental variables.

Periodization is suggested to be the optimum method of sports training when aiming to enhance team performance due to the organisational and structural nature to its approach. Kiely (2012) states periodization provides benefits such as providing idealized training structures, times frames to progress athletes and therefore development and retention of overall fitness adaptations. However, within team sports, such as football, can be complicated due to the various training goals, volume of training and practices required as well as an extended season of competition – with reference to additional progressive competition matches (Gamble, 2006). This showing that periodization models can be difficult to implement in team sports due to its ever-changing nature, relating to why there are limited studies regarding the implementation of periodization in team sports.

Tactical periodization

For many years, football training and its planning has been (and still is) characterised by fragmented thinking of which has perhaps been attributed to the success of such an approach in individual sports. The emphasis of planning and improvement was mainly in regards to the physical attributes of strength, speed and endurance. [17] Furthermore, whether it be the undulating model, the reverse linear model or the traditional periodization framework, one of the underpinning assumptions is that it would be best to segregate the programme into distinct training blocks in a sequential hierarchy i.e. a training block to build endurance before speed and strength before power. This is claimed to be based on the ‘science of periodization’. However, Kiely, [18] argues that the proof on which this is all based on is flawed because the studies used to build this proof have only ‘compared training interventions with no training variation to those with degrees of variation’ but did not offer any insight ‘into how that variation is best scheduled and organised’ (Kiely, 2010, p. 4). So although it is commonly agreed that training variation is an important design feature which needs to be integrated into the training plan, there is ‘little or no supporting evidence’ which proves that the segregation of the program into distinct training blocks or that there should be sequential hierarchy of how this should be done is in fact advantageous.

Many authors such as Garganta, Maia, & Marque, [19] Oliveira, [20] Castelo, [21] and Gaiteiro [22] have argued in regards to the indivisibility of the 4 components which make up a football performance...technical, tactical, physical and mental. This complexity makes football a multidimensional phenomenon which cannot be simply reduced to the sum of its parts. Is defending more important than attacking or vice versa? This question cannot be answered as football needs to be understood as a whole. As highlighted by Tamarit, [23] football is a tactical game where players are constantly required to make decisions in response to specific situations. So football needs to be viewed as a tactical game which encompasses with it the physical, technical and mental aspects required for positive performances. This is the foundation upon which Victor Frade developed a training methodology known as tactical periodisation which emphasises the development of the tactical dimension. Therefore, any physical, technical or mental development must always have a tactical intention. In other words, although the ability to run for 90 minutes may seem vital to play the game, knowing when, where and how to run is much more important.

Related Research Articles

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Sports injury</span> Physical and emotional trauma

Sports injuries are injuries that occur during sport, athletic activities, or exercising. In the United States, there are approximately 30 million teenagers and children who participate in some form of organized sport. Of those, about three million athletes age 14 years and under experience a sports injury annually. According to a study performed at Stanford University, 21 percent of the injuries observed in elite college athletes caused the athlete to miss at least one day of sport, and approximately 77 percent of these injuries involved the knee, lower leg, ankle, or foot. In addition to those sport injuries, the leading cause of death related to sports injuries is traumatic head or neck occurrences.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Strength training</span> Performance of physical exercises designed to improve strength

Strength training, also known as weight training or resistance training, involves the performance of physical exercises that are designed to improve strength and endurance. It is often associated with the lifting of weights. It can also incorporate a variety of training techniques such as bodyweight exercises, isometrics, and plyometrics.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Plyometrics</span> Maximum-intensity explosive exercises

Plyometrics, also known as jump training or plyos, are exercises in which muscles exert maximum force in short intervals of time, with the goal of increasing power (speed-strength). This training focuses on learning to move from a muscle extension to a contraction in a rapid or "explosive" manner, such as in specialized repeated jumping. Plyometrics are primarily used by athletes, especially martial artists, sprinters and high jumpers, to improve performance, and are used in the fitness field to a much lesser degree.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Vertical jump</span> Jump vertically in the air

A vertical jump or vertical leap is the act of jumping upwards into the air. It can be an exercise for building both endurance and strength, and is also a standard test for measuring athletic performance. It may also be referred to as a Sargent jump, named for Dudley Allen Sargent.

General Physical Preparation, also known as GPP, lays the groundwork for later Specific Physical Preparation, or SPP. In the GPP phase, athletes work on general conditioning to improve strength, speed, endurance, flexibility, structure and skill. GPP is generally performed in the off-season, with a lower level of GPP-maintenance during the season, when SPP is being pursued. GPP helps prevent imbalances and boredom with both specific and non-specific exercises by conditioning the body to work.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Progressive overload</span> Method of strength training

Progressive overload is a method of strength training and hypertrophy training that advocates for the gradual increase of the stress placed upon the musculoskeletal and nervous system. The principle of progressive overload suggests that the continual increase in the total workload during training sessions will stimulate muscle growth and strength gain by muscle hypertrophy. This improvement in overall performance will, in turn, allow the athlete to keep increasing the intensity of their training sessions.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Endurance training</span> Exercising to increase endurance

Endurance training is the act of exercising to increase endurance. The term endurance training generally refers to training the aerobic system as opposed to the anaerobic system. The need for endurance in sports is often predicated as the need of cardiovascular and simple muscular endurance, but the issue of endurance is far more complex. Endurance can be divided into two categories including: general endurance and specific endurance. It can be shown that endurance in sport is closely tied to the execution of skill and technique. A well conditioned athlete can be defined as, the athlete who executes his or her technique consistently and effectively with the least effort. Key for measuring endurance are heart rate, power in cycling and pace in running.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Relative energy deficiency in sport</span> Syndrome of disordered eating, oligomenorrhoea and osteopenia

Relative energy deficiency in sport (RED-S) is a syndrome in which disordered eating, amenorrhoea/oligomenorrhoea, and decreased bone mineral density are present. It is caused by eating too little food to support the amount of energy being expended by an athlete, often at the urging of a coach or other authority figure who believes that athletes are more likely to win competitions when they have an extremely lean body type. RED-S is a serious illness with lifelong health consequences and can potentially be fatal.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Supercompensation</span> Post-training period of high performance

In sports science theory, supercompensation refers to the post-training period during which the trained parameter has a higher performance capacity than it did prior to the training period.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Training camp</span>

A training camp is an organized period in which military personnel or athletes participate in a rigorous and focused schedule of training in order to learn or improve skills. Athletes typically utilise training camps to prepare for upcoming events, and in competitive sports, to focus on developing skills and strategies to defeat their opponents. A military training camp generally refers to the period of boot camp, or further or refresher training.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">UPMC Rooney Sports Complex</span> Multi-sport training facility

The UPMC Rooney Sports Complex is a multipurpose, multisport training, sports science, and sports medical complex of the University of Pittsburgh Medical Center. The complex is located along the shore of the Monongahela River in Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania, and is unique in that it is the only facility in the United States housing the practice and training facilities for both a collegiate National Collegiate Athletic Association (NCAA) football team and a professional National Football League (NFL) team, the Pittsburgh Panthers and Pittsburgh Steelers respectively. It is also unique in that it combines these training facilities in one location with an academically based sports science and medicine program. The complex consists of four centers which include the Center for Sports Medicine, Sports Training Center, Indoor Training Center, and the Fitness and Conditioning Center located in three buildings along with four outdoor practice fields all situated on 40 acres (16 ha) of land. The UPMC Center for Sports Medicine located in the complex is an international destination for amateur and professional athletes alike for its training, medical, and rehabilitation studies and services.

Athletics is a term encompassing the human competitive sports and games requiring physical skill, and the systems of training that prepare athletes for competitive performance. Athletic sports or contests are competitions which are primarily based on human physical competition, demanding the qualities of stamina, fitness, and skill. Athletic sports form the bulk of popular sporting activities, with other major forms including motorsports, precision sports, extreme sports and animal sports.

A strength and conditioning coach is a physical performance professional who uses exercise prescription to improve the performance of competitive athletes or athletic teams. This is achieved through the combination of strength training, aerobic conditioning, and other methods.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Margo Jennings</span>

Margo Jennings is a retired teacher and athletics coach. Jennings enjoyed a 40-year teaching career while coaching track athletes of all levels for 30 years. Using her self-created training plan, focusing on low mileage and strength training, Jennings coached many athletes, most notably Maria Mutola (Mozambique), who won Gold in the 800m at the 2000 Sydney Olympics and Dame Kelly Holmes (England) who won double gold in the 800/1500m events at the 2004 Athens Olympics. Jennings is considered by many supporters as one of the best middle distance running coaches in the world.

István Javorek is a United States sports conditioning coach. Coach Javorek is the retired head strength and conditioning coach at Johnson County Community College, Kansas, United States. He supervised the strength and conditioning program for JCCC’s 18 sports and serves as a professor emeritus of fitness in the physical education department. He has been married to Julia Javorek since 1968, and they have one child, Dr. Henriette A. Javorek. He now lives in Overland Park, Kansas. He is the new strength and conditioning coach at Overland Park racquet club.

Football strength is a training regime, considered the most complex physical quality to be developed by an athlete. The training regime, exercises used, how the exercises are performed, and the types of equipment all play important roles in achieving desired results.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Cross-country skiing (sport)</span> Competitive winter sport

Competitive cross-country skiing encompasses a variety of race formats and course lengths. Rules of cross-country skiing are sanctioned by the International Ski Federation and by various national organizations. International competitions include the FIS Nordic World Ski Championships, the FIS Cross-Country World Cup, and at the Winter Olympic Games. Such races occur over homologated, groomed courses designed to support classic (in-track) and freestyle events, where the skiers may employ skate skiing. It also encompasses cross-country ski marathon events, sanctioned by the Worldloppet Ski Federation, and cross-country ski orienteering events, sanctioned by the International Orienteering Federation. Related forms of competition are biathlon, where competitors race on cross-country skis and stop to shoot at targets with rifles, and paralympic cross-country skiing that allows athletes with disabilities to compete at cross-country skiing with adaptive equipment.

Training masks are facial masks worn to limit the intake of air during breathing. Their ostensible purpose is to strengthen the respiratory musculature by making it work harder. There is some evidence that they may improve endurance capacity (VO2 max) and power output, but research into their benefits has so far generally proven inconclusive.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Power training</span> Common type of speed and strength training

Power training typically involves exercises which apply the maximum amount of force as fast as possible; on the basis that strength + speed = power. Jumping with weights or throwing weights are two examples of power training exercises. Regular weight training exercises such as the clean and jerk and power clean may also be considered as being power training exercises due to the explosive speed required to complete the lifts. Power training may also involve contrasting exercises such as heavy lifts and plyometrics, known as complex training, in an attempt to combine the maximal lifting exertions with dynamic movements. This combination of a high strength exercise with a high speed exercise may lead to an increased ability to apply power. Power training frequently specifically utilises two physiological processes which increase in conjunction with one another during exercise. These are deep breathing, which results in increased intra-abdominal pressure; and post-activation potentation, which is the enhanced activation of the nervous system and increased muscle fibre recruitment. Power training programmes may be shaped to increase the trainee's ability to apply power in general, to meet sports specific criteria, or both.

Velocity based training (VBT) is a modern approach to strength training and power training which utilises velocity tracking technology to provide rich objective data as a means to motivate and support real-time adjustments in an athlete's training plan. Typical strength and power programming and periodisation plans rely on the manipulation of reps, sets and loads as a means to calibrate training stressors in the pursuit of specific adaptations. Since the late 1990s, innovations in bar speed monitoring technology has brought velocity based training closer to the mainstream as the range of hardware and software solutions for measuring exercise velocities have become easier to use and more affordable. Velocity based training has a wide range of use cases and applications in strength and conditioning. These include barbell sports such as powerlifting and Olympic weightlifting and Crossfit, as well as rock climbing.Velocity based training is widely adopted across professional sporting clubs, with the data supporting many periodisation decisions for coaches in the weight room and on the field.

References

  1. ↑ Rowbottom, David J. (2000). "References". In Garrett, William E.; Kirkendall, Donald T. (eds.). Periodization of Training. Philadelphia: Lippincott Williams & Wilkins. p. 499. ISBN   9780683034219 . Retrieved 20 April 2013.
  2. ↑ Atomic 4 (12 November 2022). "The Basics of Periodization Training in Sports". Vitruve | Velocity-Based Training. Retrieved 25 August 2023.{{cite web}}: CS1 maint: numeric names: authors list (link)
  3. 1 2 Stone, Michael H.; Hornsby, William G.; Haff, G. Gregory; Fry, Andrew C.; Suarez, Dylan G.; Liu, Junshi; Gonzalez-Rave, Jose M.; Pierce, Kyle C. (August 2021). "Periodization and Block Periodization in Sports: Emphasis on Strength-Power Training—A Provocative and Challenging Narrative". The Journal of Strength & Conditioning Research. 35 (8): 2351–2371. doi: 10.1519/JSC.0000000000004050 . ISSN   1064-8011. PMID   34132223. S2CID   235451191.
  4. ↑ Stone, Michael H.; Hornsby, William G.; Haff, G. Gregory; Fry, Andrew C.; Suarez, Dylan G.; Liu, Junshi; Gonzalez-Rave, Jose M.; Pierce, Kyle C. (19 October 2022). "Periodization and Block Periodization in Sports: Emphasis on Strength-Power Training—A Provocative and Challenging Narrative". The Journal of Strength & Conditioning Research. 35 (8): 2351–2371. doi: 10.1519/JSC.0000000000004050 . ISSN   1064-8011. PMID   34132223. S2CID   235451191.
  5. ↑ Stone, Michael H.; Hornsby, William G.; Haff, G. Gregory; Fry, Andrew C.; Suarez, Dylan G.; Liu, Junshi; Gonzalez-Rave, Jose M.; Pierce, Kyle C. (26 October 2022). "Periodization and Block Periodization in Sports: Emphasis on Strength-Power Training—A Provocative and Challenging Narrative". The Journal of Strength & Conditioning Research. 35 (8): 2351–2371. doi: 10.1519/JSC.0000000000004050 . ISSN   1064-8011. PMID   34132223. S2CID   235451191.
  6. ↑ "Rethinking Periodization – Part Two". Functional Path Training. Retrieved 2 November 2022.
  7. ↑ Hunsucker, Adam. "Strength pioneer Al Miller tells the secrets of 'The System' in new book" . Retrieved 29 March 2024.
  8. ↑ Bettin, Allison (11 April 2017). "Macrocycles, Mesocycles and Microcycles: Understanding the Three Cycles of Periodization". TrainingPeaks. Retrieved 16 December 2022.
  9. 1 2 "Periodisation in fencing" . Retrieved 23 January 2015.
  10. ↑ Lacke, Susan (10 March 2022). "How to Use Periodization in Your Triathlon Training Plan". Triathlete. Retrieved 30 January 2023.
  11. ↑ Bettin, Allison (11 April 2017). "Macrocycles, Mesocycles and Microcycles: Understanding the Three Cycles of Periodization". TrainingPeaks. Retrieved 27 October 2022.
  12. ↑ Bettin, Allison (11 April 2017). "Macrocycles, Mesocycles and Microcycles: Understanding the Three Cycles of Periodization". TrainingPeaks. Retrieved 14 September 2022.
  13. ↑ Academy, U. S. Sports (5 August 2016). "Tools and Benefits of Periodization: Developing an Annual Training Plan and Promoting Performance Improvements in Athletes". The Sport Journal. Retrieved 16 December 2022.
  14. ↑ Mala, Jesse; Szivak, Tunde K.; Kraemer, William J. (August 2015). "Improving Performance of Heavy Load Carriage During High-Intensity Combat-Related Tasks". Strength & Conditioning Journal. 37 (4): 43–52. doi: 10.1519/SSC.0000000000000136 . S2CID   79728541.
  15. ↑ "Link training periods with a transition phase". Human Kinetics Canada. Retrieved 16 December 2022.
  16. ↑ Kiely, John (2018). "Periodization Theory: Confronting an Inconvenient Truth". Sports Medicine. 48 (4): 753–764. doi:10.1007/s40279-017-0823-y. PMC   5856877 . PMID   29189930.
  17. ↑ Carvalhal, C. (2014). ‘Soccer: Developing A Know-how’, Prime Books
  18. ↑ Kiely, J. (2010). ‘Periodization, planning, prediction: And why the future ain’t what it used to be!’, UKA, 1-14.
  19. ↑ Garganta, J., Maia, J. & Marques, A. (1996). ‘Acerca da investigação dos factores de rendimento em futebol’, Revista paulista de educação física, São Paulo, 10, (2), 146-158.
  20. ↑ Oliveira, G.J. (1991). ‘Especificidade, o pós-futebol do pré-futebol. Um factor condicionante do alto rendimento desportivo. In Oliveira, R. (2014) ‘Tactical periodization: The secrets of soccer most effective training methodology’.
  21. ↑ Castelo, J. (2000). ‘Formação continua. O treinador de futebol. Exercícios de treino no futebol’, Escola superior de desporto de Rio Maior. IPS.
  22. ↑ Gaiteiro, B. (2006). ‘A cienca oculta do sucesso! Mourinho aos olhos da cienca’. In Tamarit, X. (2014). ‘What is tactical periodization?’ Bennion Kearny Limited.
  23. ↑ Tamarit, X. (2014). ‘What is tactical periodization?’ Bennion Kearny Limited.
This page is based on this Wikipedia article
Text is available under the CC BY-SA 4.0 license; additional terms may apply.
Images, videos and audio are available under their respective licenses.