Sprint (running)

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Usain Bolt, world record holder in 100 m and 200 m sprints Usain Bolt 2012 Olympics 1.jpg
Usain Bolt, world record holder in 100 m and 200 m sprints
This sprinter's initial crouch in the blocks allowed her to preload her muscles and channel the force generated from this into her first strides. 2014 DecaNation - 400 m 20.jpg
This sprinter's initial crouch in the blocks allowed her to preload her muscles and channel the force generated from this into her first strides.

Sprinting is running over a short distance at the top-most speed of the body in a limited period of time. It is used in many sports that incorporate running, typically as a way of quickly reaching a target or goal, or avoiding or catching an opponent. Human physiology dictates that a runner's near-top speed cannot be maintained for more than 30–35 seconds due to the depletion of phosphocreatine stores in muscles, and perhaps secondarily to excessive metabolic acidosis as a result of anaerobic glycolysis. [1]

Contents

In athletics and track and field, sprints (or dashes) are races over short distances. They are among the oldest running competitions, being recorded at the Ancient Olympic Games. Three sprints are currently held at the modern Summer Olympics and outdoor World Championships: the 100 metres, 200 metres, and 400 metres.

At the professional level, sprinters begin the race by assuming a crouching position in the starting blocks before driving forward and gradually moving into an upright position as the race progresses and momentum is gained. The set position differs depending on the start. The use of starting blocks allows the sprinter to perform an enhanced isometric preload; this generates muscular pre-tension which is channeled into the subsequent forward drive, making it more powerful. Body alignment is of key importance in producing the optimal amount of force. Ideally, the athlete should begin in a 4-point stance and drive forwards, pushing off using both legs for maximum force production. [2] Athletes remain in the same lane on the running track throughout all sprinting events, [3] with the sole exception of the 400 metres indoors. Races up to 100 metres are largely focused upon acceleration to an athlete's maximum speed. [2] All sprints beyond this distance increasingly incorporate an element of endurance. [4]

History

The stadion of ancient Nemea, Greece. Stadion of Nemea.jpg
The stadion of ancient Nemea, Greece.

The first 13 editions of the Ancient Olympic Games featured only one event—the stadion race, which was a sprinting race from one end of the stadium to the other. [5] The Diaulos (Δίαυλος, "double pipe") was a double-stadion race, c. 400 metres (1,300 feet), introduced in the 14th Olympiad of the ancient Olympic Games (724 BC).

Sprint races were part of the original Olympic Games in the 7th century B.C. as well as the first modern Olympic Games which started in the late 19th century (Athens 1896) [6] and featured the 100 meters and 400 meters. Athletes started both races from a crouched start (4-point stance). In both the original Olympics and the modern Olympics, only men were allowed to participate in track and field until the 1928 games in Amsterdam, Netherlands. [7] The 1928 games were also the first games to use a 400-meter track, which became the standard for track and field.

The modern sprinting events have their roots in races of imperial measurements which were later altered to metric: the 100 m evolved from the 100-yard dash, [8] the 200 m distance came from the furlong (or 1⁄8 mile), [9] and the 400 m was the successor to the 440-yard dash or quarter-mile race. [3]

Technological advances have always improved sprint performances (i.e., starting blocks, synthetic track material, and shoe technology). In 1924, athletes used a small shovel to dig holes to start the race. The world record in the 100-meter dash in 1924 was 10.4 seconds, while in 1948, (the first use of starting blocks) was 10.2 seconds, and was 10.1 seconds in 1956. The constant drive for faster athletes with better technology has brought man from 10.4 seconds to 9.58 seconds in less than 100 years.

Track events were measured with the metric system except for the United Kingdom and the United States until 1965 and 1974 respectively. The Amateur Athletic Association (AAU) [ citation needed ] decided to switch track and field in the U.S. to the metric system to finally make track and field internationally equivalent.

Biological factors for runners

Biological factors that determine a sprinter's potential include:

Competitions

Start of the women's 60 m at the 2010 World Indoor Championships Start women 60 m Doha 2010.jpg
Start of the women's 60 m at the 2010 World Indoor Championships

Common contemporary distances

60 meters

  • Normally run indoors, on a straight section of an indoor athletic track.
  • Some of the fastest humans reach their maximum speed around the 60-metre mark.
  • 60-meters is often used as an outdoor distance by younger athletes when starting sprint racing.

Note: Indoor distances are less standardized, as many facilities run shorter or occasionally longer distances depending on available space. 60 m is the championship distance.

100 meters [11]

  • Takes place on the straight of a standard outdoor 400 m track.
  • Often, the world-record holder in this race is considered "the world's fastest man/woman."
  • Primarily an outdoor race.
A 200 m bend Crawford, Dzingai 200 m Berlin 2009.jpg
A 200 m bend

200 meters [11]

  • Begins on the curve of a standard track (where the runners are staggered in their starting position, to ensure that they all run the same distance), and ends on the home straight.
  • Competed both indoors and outdoors, with only slightly slower times than outdoors.

400 meters [11]

  • Runners are staggered in their starting positions to ensure that everyone runs the same distance.
  • Competed both indoors and outdoors, with only slightly slower times than outdoors.
Allyson Felix, at London 2012 Summer Olympics AllysonFelixRelay4x400London2012.jpg
Allyson Felix, at London 2012 Summer Olympics

4 × 100 metres relay [12]

  • Runners are staggered in their starting positions to ensure that everyone runs the same distance.
  • Runners use acceleration zones and exchange zones to pass a baton

4 × 400 metres relay [12]

  • Runners are staggered in their starting positions to ensure that everyone runs the same distance.
  • Runners use exchange zones to pass a baton.
  • Typically, the final race at track meets.

Historical and uncommon distances

50 yards (45.72 m)

The event was a common event for most American students because it was one of the standardized test events as part of the President's Award on Physical Fitness. [13]

50 m

The 50 metres is an uncommon event and alternative to the 60 metres. Donovan Bailey holds the men's world record with a time of 5.56 seconds and Irina Privalova holds the women's world record with a time of 5.96 seconds.

60 yards (54.864 m)

  • A rarely run sprinting event that was once more commonplace. The world record time of 5.99 is held by Lee McRae and was set in 1987. The time is often used for American Football speed training.

55 m

The 55 metres is an uncommon event that resulted from the metrication of the 60 yards and is an alternative to the 60 metres.

70 Yards

An extremely rare sprinting event, that was occasionally run in the 1960s. The world record of 6.90 is held by Bob Hayes.

100 yards (91.44 m)

  • The outdoor standard in the English (imperial measured) speaking world. It was part of the Commonwealth Games up until 1966 and was the premier event in American high school sprinting until the NFHS changed to metric in 1980, now only a secondary distance to the 100 metres.
  • The unofficial World Record Holder is Jamaican Asafa Powell with a time of 9.07 seconds.

150 m

150 metres final at the Manchester City Games 2009 Manchester City Games 2009 - Men's final 2 (crop2).jpg
150 metres final at the Manchester City Games 2009
  • The informal distance of 150 metres (164.042 yards) can be used to work on a 100 m runner's stamina, or a 200 m runner's speed, and has been used as an exhibition distance. The distance was used in a race between the 1996 Olympic champions, the 100 m gold medalist Donovan Bailey (Canada) and the 200 m gold medalist Michael Johnson (USA). It was to decide which of the two was really the 'fastest man on earth' (see Bailey–Johnson 150-metre race).
  • The informal distance was used for an exhibition race during the Manchester Great CityGames as part of the 2009 Great Manchester Run (UK). Stars included Triple Olympic Champion Usain Bolt (Jamaica) alongside Ivory Williams (USA), Simeon Williamson (UK), and other international track stars. The female race included 400 m Olympic Champion, Christine Ohuruogu of Great Britain alongside Debbie Ferguson-McKenzie (Bahamas). Bolt ran the distance in a record time of 14.35 seconds. [14] [15]

Stadion

A race scene from Ancient Greece, originally represented on a Panathenaic amphora Panathenaic Amphora Sprinters.jpg
A race scene from Ancient Greece, originally represented on a Panathenaic amphora

The stadion, also known as the stade, was the standard short distance sprint in ancient Greece and ran the length of a stadium. However, stadiums could vary in size and there was apparently no definite standard length for them, e.g., the stadium at Delphi measures 177 m and the one at Pergamon 210 m. [16]

300 m

  • The 300 metres is another informal distance, which could be used to aid a 200 m runner's stamina, or a 400 m runner's speed. Currently, the world's best for this event is 30.81 seconds, set by Wayde van Niekerk in Ostrava, Czech Republic in 2017. [17] The women's record is 35.30 seconds, set by Ana Guevara at altitude in Mexico City in 2003. Junior girls in several countries run this distance instead of the 400 metres.

Diaulos

The diaulos was an event contested in the Ancient Greek Olympia that was double the length of a stadion.

The hoplitodromos race was two stades long and run with a shield and helmet. This drawing is based on an original from a Panathenaic amphora from c.336 BC. Image from page 318 of "Greek athletic sports and festivals" (1910).jpg
The hoplitodromos race was two stades long and run with a shield and helmet. This drawing is based on an original from a Panathenaic amphora from c.336 BC.

As well as standard foot races, in Ancient Greece there was also a sprint race called the hoplitodromos ('armed diaulos' [19] ). This required the sprinters to additionally carry a large shield and wear a helmet. Similarly to the diaulos, they ran two stades in length i.e. one stade ending with a 180 degree turn around a post, which led onto the second stade in length back down the track. [20]

4 × 200 metres relay [12]

  • Runners are staggered in their starting positions to ensure that everyone runs the same distance.
  • Runners use acceleration zones and exchange zones to pass a baton

Equipment

Shoes

Typically, a sprinter only needs two types of shoes, training shoes and sprinting spikes. [21]

Sprinting spikes are typically designed to be lightweight, with a minimal cushion on the heels and a plate on the forefoot to keep the runner on the toes of each foot. The spike plate will typically have the maximum number of holes for metal spikes to be inserted to keep a proper grip on the track surface. These metal removable spikes also come in varying sizes. The spikes typically range from 4 mm to 15 mm and come in different styles. Most facilities have specific requirements for what size and style spikes can be used. [22]

Starting Blocks [23]

Starting blocks are not a necessity but are highly suggested for use in sprinting events. Starting blocks are a piece of equipment that typically consists of foot pads attached to a central rail. The point of using blocks is to help the athlete push themselves further down the track as quickly as possible.

Typical Block Start Set-up [24]

  • Place heel slightly on the starting line
  • Place the blocks in the center of the track, approximately where your toe is.
  • The dominant foot will be in the front block. With the paddle being set at 45 degrees
  • The front block will be about 1 3⁄4-2 foot lengths from the starting line.
  • The non-dominant foot will be in the back block.  The paddle will be set as high as possible.
  • The back block will be set about 3-3 1⁄2 foot lengths from the starting line.
  • The front block and back block are only about 1-foot in length apart.
  • The toes should barely touch the ground.  
  • Hands will be placed about shoulder-width apart, with the thumb and pointer finger slightly behind the line.
  • Arms should be in a straight position (locked or prepared to be locked at the elbows)
  • The arms will remain straight (if not locked at the elbows)
  • The hips will rise slightly above the shoulders (forcing the front half of the body to lean forward at about 45 degrees (slightly less)).
  • A forward lean is optimal because it shifts most of the weight to the hands with a minimal bend to the back.
  • The dominant leg should have about a 90-degree bend at the knee, while the non-dominant leg should be about 120 degrees
  • The arm on the dominant foot side will swing forward in an "exaggerated" fashion, while the arm on the non-dominant side will swing backward in the same fashion
  • The non-dominant foot will be the first step.
  • The non-dominant leg should come out with a long (within comfort's range) stride, bringing the knee to a 90-degree position (separation of the foot and opposite leg's knee about 2-2 1⁄2 feet), approximately a 45-degree shin angle, and dorsiflexion with each stride.
  • Halfway before the first step lands, the "driving" position should have a straight line through the non-dominant ankle, knee, hips, shoulders, and head.

Baton

The baton is a required element for any relay race. The baton is passed to each athlete through different exchange zones, with different techniques. Typically, about 1 foot (0.30 m) and 1.5 inches (3.8 cm) in diameter.

Timing

Stopwatches

Used typically in training sessions to measure relative times and recovery times. Stopwatches are not always the most accurate way to measure times in a race setting,

Fully Automatic Timing / Gate Systems

Fully Automatic Timing (FAT) and gate systems are used to accurately measure races, with results as accurate as up to 1/1000 of a second. [25]  

Governing Bodies

As of 2021, World Athletics (WA) [26] is the governing body for track and field around the world. Every country that wishes to participate in WA competitions must become a member. [27]

Rules

Rule differences with each Governing Bodies

Each governing body sets its own rules for how competition is deemed fair.  World Athletics sets the competition rules internationally. The World Athletics rulebook [28] is broken into 4 separate books.

The start

Jeremy Wariner beginning a race from the starting blocks Start Jeremy Wariner 2007.jpg
Jeremy Wariner beginning a race from the starting blocks

Starting blocks are used for all competition sprints (up to and including 400 m) and relay events (first leg only, up to 4x400 m). [29] The starting blocks consist of two adjustable footplates attached to a rigid frame. Races commence with the firing of the starter's gun. [29] The starting commands are "On your marks" and "Set". [29] Once all athletes are in the set position, the starter's gun is fired, officially starting the race. For the 100 m, all competitors are lined up side by side. For the 200 m, 300 m, and 400 m, which involve curves, runners are staggered for the start.

In the rare event that there are technical issues with a start, a green card is shown to all the athletes. The green card carries no penalty. If an athlete is unhappy with track conditions after the "on your marks" command is given, the athlete must raise a hand before the "set" command and provide the Start referee with a reason. It is then up to the Start referee to decide if the reason is valid. If the Start referee deems the reason invalid, a yellow card (warning) is issued to that particular athlete. If the athlete is already on a warning, the athlete is disqualified.

False starts

Sprint lanes in Ornskoldsvik, Sweden, as seen from the 100 m starting point Skyttis athletics tracks.jpg
Sprint lanes in Örnsköldsvik, Sweden, as seen from the 100 m starting point

According to the World Athletics (WA) rules, "An athlete, after assuming a full and final set position, shall not commence his starting motion until after receiving the report of the gun or approved starting apparatus. If, in the judgement of the Starter or Recallers, he does so any earlier, it shall be deemed a false start." [29]

The 100 m Olympic gold and silver medallist Linford Christie of Great Britain famously had frequent false starts that were marginally below the legal reaction time of 0.1  seconds. Christie and his coach, Ron Roddan, both claimed that the false starts were due to Christie's exceptional reaction times being under legal time. His frequent false starting eventually led to his disqualification from the 1996 Summer Olympics 100 m final in Atlanta, the US, due to a second false start by Christie. Since January 2010, under WA rules, a single false start by an athlete resulted in disqualification.

In 2012, a new development to the false start rule was added. Because certain athletes could be disqualified for twitching in the starting blocks, but some athletes could make a twitch without the starter noticing and disqualifying the athlete, it was decided that twitching in the starting block while being in the 'set' position would only carry a maximum penalty of a yellow card or a warning. To instantly be disqualified for a false start, an athlete's hands must leave the track or their feet must leave the starting blocks, while the athlete is in their final 'set' position. [30]

Lanes

The finish of the 1987 East German athletics championships Bundesarchiv Bild 183-1987-0822-034, Sabine Busch, Cornelia Ulrich.jpg
The finish of the 1987 East German athletics championships

For all Olympic sprint events, runners must remain within their pre-assigned lanes, which measure 1.22 metres (4 feet) wide, from start to finish. [31] The lanes can be numbered 1 through 8, 9, or rarely 10, starting with the inside lane. Any athlete who runs outside the assigned lane to gain an advantage is subject to disqualification. If the athlete is forced to run outside of his or her lane by another person, and no material advantage is gained, there will be no disqualification. Also, a runner who strays from his or her lane in the straightaway, or crosses the outer line of his or her lane on the bend, and gains no advantage by it, will not be disqualified as long as no other runner is obstructed.

The finish

The first athlete whose torso reaches the vertical plane of the closest edge of the finish line is the winner. To ensure that the sprinter's torso triggers the timing impulse at the finish line rather than an arm, foot, or other body parts, a double Photocell is commonly used. Times are only recorded by an electronic timing system when both of these Photocells are simultaneously blocked. Photo finish systems are also used at some track and field events.

World Records [32]

Women's World Records
DisciplinePerformanceCompetitorCountryVenueDate
50 meters5.96Irina Privalova [33] RUS [34] Madrid (ESP)09 FEB 1995
60 meters6.92Irina Privalova [33] RUS [34] Madrid (ESP)09 FEB 1995
100 meters10.49Florence Griffith-Joyner [35] USA [36] Indianapolis, IN (USA)16 JUL 1988
200 meters (indoors)21.87Merlene Ottey [37] JAM [38] Lievin (FRA)13 FEB 1993
200 meters (outdoors)21.34Florence Griffith-Joyner [35] USA [36] Olympic Stadium, Jamsil, Seoul (KOR)29 SEP 1988
400 meters (indoors)49.26Femke Bol [39] NLDOmnisport, Apeldoorn (NLD)19 FEB 2023
400 meters (outdoors)47.60Marita Koch [40] GDRBruce Stadium, Canberra (AUS)06 OCT 1985
4x100 meter relay40.82Tianna Bartoletta, [41] Allyson Felix, [42] Bianca Knight, [43] Carmelita Jeter [44] USA [36] Olympic Stadium, London (GBR)10 AUG 2012
4x200 meter relay (indoors)1:32.41Yuliya Gushchina, [45] Yuliya Pechonkina, [46] Irina Khabarova, [47] Yekaterina Kondratyeva [48] RUS [34] Glasgow (GBR)29 JAN 2005
4x200 meter relay (outdoors)1:27.46Marion Jones, [49] Nanceen Perry, [50] LaTasha Colander, [51] LaTasha Jenkins [52] USA [36] Philadelphia, PA (USA)29 APR 2000
4x400 meter relay (indoors)3:23.37Yuliya Gushchina, [45] Olga Kotlyarova, [53] Olga Zaytseva, [54] Olesya Krasnomovets-Forsheva [55] RUS [34] Glasgow (GBR)28 JAN 2006
4x400 meter relay (outdoors)3:15.17Tatyana Ledovskaya, [56] Olga Nazarova, [57] Mariya Pinigina, [58] Olga Bryzgina [59] URSOlympic Stadium, Jamsil, Seoul (KOR)01 OCT 1988
Men's World Records
DisciplinePerformanceCompetitorCountryVenueDate
50 meters5.56Donovan Bailey [60] CAN [61] Reno, NV (USA)09 FEB 1996
60 meters6.34Christian Coleman [62] USA [36] Albuquerque, NM (USA)18 FEB 2018
100 meters9.58Usain Bolt [63] JAM [38] Olympiastadion, Berlin (GER)16 AUG 2009
200 meters (indoors)19.92Frank Fredericks [64] NAM [65] Liévin (FRA)18 FEB 1996
200 meters (outdoors)19.19Usain Bolt [63] JAM [38] Olympiastadion, Berlin (GER)20 AUG 2009
400 meters (indoors)44.57Kerron Clement [66] USA [36] Fayetteville, AR (USA)12 MAR 2005
400 meters (outdoors)43.03Wayde Van Niekerk [67] RSA [68] Estádio Olímpico, Rio de Janeiro (BRA)14 AUG 2016
4x100 meter relay36.84Nesta Carter, [69] Michael Frater, [70] Yohan Blake, [71] Usain Bolt [63] JAM [38] Olympic Stadium, London (GBR)11 AUG 2012
4x200 meter relay (indoors)1:22.11John Regis, [72] Ade Mafe, [73] Darren Braithwaite, [74] Linford Christie [75] GBR [76] Glasgow (GBR)03 MAR 1991
4x200 meter relay (outdoors)1:18.63Nickel Ashmeade, [77] Warren Weir, [78] Jermaine Brown, [79] Yohan Blake [71] JAM [38] T. Robinson Stadium, Nassau (BAH)24 MAY 2014
4x400 meter relay (indoors)3:01.51Amere Lattin, [80] Obi Igbokwe, [81] Jermaine Holt, [82] Kahmari Montgomery [83] USA [36] Clemson, SC (USA)09 FEB 2019
4x400 meter relay (outdoors)2:54.29Michael Johnson, [84] Harry "Butch" Reynolds, [85] Quincy Watts, [86] Andrew Valmon [87] USA [36] Gottlieb-Daimler Stadion, Stuttgart (GER)22 AUG 1993
Mixed World Records
DisciplinePerformanceCompetitorCountryVenueDate
4x400 meter relay mixed3:08.80Justin Robinson, Rosey Effiong, Matthew Bowling, Alexis HolmesUSA [36] National Athletics Centre, Budapest (HUN)19 AUG 2023

Sprint training

While genetics play a large role in one's ability to sprint, [88] [89] [90] athletes must be dedicated to their training to ensure that they can optimize their performances. Sprint training includes various running workouts, targeting acceleration, speed development, speed endurance, special endurance, and tempo endurance. Additionally, athletes perform intense strength training workouts, as well as plyometric or jumping workouts. Collectively, these training methods produce qualities that allow athletes to be stronger, and more powerful, in hopes of ultimately running faster. [91]

See also

Notes and references

  1. ↑ Tang, Candy (2024-02-24). "Sprint Training Guidance for Beginners and Seasoned Runners". Shoes Club. Retrieved 2024-05-01.
  2. 1 2 100 m – For the Expert. IAAF. Retrieved on 26 March 2010.
  3. 1 2 400 m Introduction. IAAF. Retrieved on 26 March 2010.
  4. ↑ 200 m For the Expert. IAAF. Retrieved on 26 March 2010.
  5. ↑ Instone, Stephen (15 November 2009). The Olympics: Ancient versus Modern. BBC. Retrieved on 23 March 2010.
  6. ↑ "Athens 1896 Olympic Games". Encyclopedia Britannica. Retrieved 2021-07-27.
  7. ↑ "Amsterdam 1928". Olympics.com. 25 April 2018. Archived from the original on Aug 5, 2021. Retrieved 9 August 2021.
  8. ↑ 100 m – Introduction. IAAF. Retrieved on 26 March 2010.
  9. ↑ 200 m Introduction. IAAF. Retrieved on 26 March 2010.
  10. ↑ Quinn, Elizabeth (2007-10-30). Fast and Slow Twitch Muscle Fibers About.com. Retrieved on 2009-02-01.
  11. 1 2 3 "3 Types of Track and Field Running Events".
  12. 1 2 3 "All you need to know about relay races: Rules, history, world records".
  13. ↑ "President's Council on Sports, Fitness & Nutrition (PCSFN)". HHS.gov. 10 January 2017.
  14. ↑ Bolt runs 14.35 sec for 150m; covers 50m-150m in 8.70 sec!. IAAF (2009-05-17). Retrieved on 2009-05-17.
  15. ↑ New World Best over 150m for Usain Bolt from Universal Sports on YouTube
  16. ↑ Spivey, Nigel, The Ancient Olympics, Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2004, p. 111–112
  17. ↑ "Wayde van Niekerk breaks another Michael Johnson record". olympics.nbcsports.com. 2017-06-28. Retrieved 2017-06-29.
  18. ↑ "panathenaic amphora; prize/trophy". The British Museum. Retrieved 29 February 2024.
  19. ↑ Scanlon, Thomas F. (2014). Sport in the Greek and Roman Worlds: Volume 1 Early Greece, the Olympics, and Contests. Oxford: Oxford University Press. p. 213.
  20. ↑ Scanlon, Thomas F. (2014). Sport in the Greek and Roman Worlds: Volume 1 Early Greece, the Olympics, and Contests. Oxford: Oxford University Press. p. 213.
  21. ↑ "A Beginner's Guide to Running Spikes". Runners Need. Retrieved 2021-07-27.
  22. ↑ "The Ultimate Track Spike Buyers Guide". The Wired Runner. 2018-01-29. Retrieved 2021-07-27.
  23. ↑ "5 Secrets to Success with Starting Blocks". 9 March 2017.
  24. ↑ Wensor, Darren (2017-03-09). "5 Secrets to Success With Starting Blocks". Coaching Young Athletes. Retrieved 2021-07-27.
  25. ↑ "What is Fully Automatic Timing (FAT) for Sports? | About". FinishLynx. 20 November 2012. Retrieved 2021-07-27.
  26. ↑ "About World Athletics". www.worldathletics.org. Retrieved 2021-07-30.
  27. ↑ "Member Federations". www.worldathletics.org. Retrieved 2021-07-30.
  28. ↑ "Book of Rules | Official Documents". www.worldathletics.org. Retrieved 2021-07-30.
  29. 1 2 3 4 Competition Rules 2012-13, IAAF
  30. ↑ Cherry, Gene (4 July 2012). "Twitch or flinch no longer a false start". Reuters . Retrieved 22 June 2022.
  31. ↑ 2009 USATF Competition Rules, Rule 160(1)
  32. ↑ "World Athletics". www.worldathletics.org. Retrieved 2021-07-30.
  33. 1 2 "Irina Privalova | Profile | World Athletics". www.worldathletics.org. Retrieved 2021-07-30.
  34. 1 2 3 4 "Member Federations". www.worldathletics.org. Retrieved 2021-07-30.
  35. 1 2 "Florence Griffith-Joyner | Profile | World Athletics". www.worldathletics.org. Retrieved 2021-07-30.
  36. 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 "Member Federations". www.worldathletics.org. Retrieved 2021-07-30.
  37. ↑ "Merlene Ottey | Profile | World Athletics". www.worldathletics.org. Retrieved 2021-07-30.
  38. 1 2 3 4 5 "Member Federations". www.worldathletics.org. Retrieved 2021-07-30.
  39. ↑ "Femke Bol | Profile | World Athletics". www.worldathletics.org. Retrieved 2023-02-28.
  40. ↑ "Marita Koch | Profile | World Athletics". www.worldathletics.org. Retrieved 2021-07-30.
  41. ↑ "Tianna Bartoletta | Profile | World Athletics". worldathletics.org. Retrieved 2021-07-30.
  42. ↑ "Allyson Felix | Profile | World Athletics". worldathletics.org. Retrieved 2021-07-30.
  43. ↑ "Bianca Knight | Profile | World Athletics". worldathletics.org. Retrieved 2021-07-30.
  44. ↑ "Carmelita Jeter | Profile | World Athletics". worldathletics.org. Retrieved 2021-07-30.
  45. 1 2 "Yuliya Gushchina | Profile | World Athletics". worldathletics.org. Retrieved 2021-07-30.
  46. ↑ "Yuliya Pechonkina | Profile | World Athletics". worldathletics.org. Retrieved 2021-07-30.
  47. ↑ "Irina Khabarova | Profile | World Athletics". www.worldathletics.org. Retrieved 2021-07-30.
  48. ↑ "Yekaterina Kondratyeva". Olympics.com. Retrieved 2021-07-30.
  49. ↑ "Marion Jones | Profile | World Athletics". worldathletics.org. Retrieved 2021-07-30.
  50. ↑ "Nanceen Perry | Profile | World Athletics". worldathletics.org. Retrieved 2021-07-30.
  51. ↑ "LaTasha Colander | Profile | World Athletics". worldathletics.org. Retrieved 2021-07-30.
  52. ↑ "LaTasha Jenkins | Profile | World Athletics". www.worldathletics.org. Retrieved 2021-07-30.
  53. ↑ "Olga Kotlyarova | Profile | World Athletics". worldathletics.org. Retrieved 2021-07-30.
  54. ↑ "Olga Zaytseva | Profile | World Athletics". worldathletics.org. Retrieved 2021-07-30.
  55. ↑ "Olesya Krasnomovets | Profile | World Athletics". worldathletics.org. Retrieved 2021-07-30.
  56. ↑ "Tatiana Ledovskaya". Olympics.com. Retrieved 2021-07-30.
  57. ↑ "Olga M. Nazarova | Profile | World Athletics". www.worldathletics.org. Retrieved 2021-07-30.
  58. ↑ "Mariya Kulchunova-Pinigina | Profile | World Athletics". worldathletics.org. Retrieved 2021-07-30.
  59. ↑ "Olga Vladykina-Bryzgina | Profile | World Athletics". worldathletics.org. Retrieved 2021-07-30.
  60. ↑ "Donovan Bailey | Profile | World Athletics". worldathletics.org. Retrieved 2021-07-30.
  61. ↑ "Member Federations". www.worldathletics.org. Retrieved 2021-07-30.
  62. ↑ "Christian Coleman | Profile | World Athletics". worldathletics.org. Retrieved 2021-07-30.
  63. 1 2 3 "Usain Bolt | Profile | World Athletics". worldathletics.org. Retrieved 2021-07-30.
  64. ↑ "Frank Fredericks | Profile | World Athletics". worldathletics.org. Retrieved 2021-07-30.
  65. ↑ "Member Federations". www.worldathletics.org. Retrieved 2021-07-30.
  66. ↑ "Kerron Clement | Profile | World Athletics". worldathletics.org. Retrieved 2021-07-30.
  67. ↑ "Wayde Van niekerk | Profile | World Athletics". worldathletics.org. Retrieved 2021-07-30.
  68. ↑ "Member Federations". www.worldathletics.org. Retrieved 2021-07-30.
  69. ↑ "Nesta Carter | Profile | World Athletics". worldathletics.org. Retrieved 2021-07-30.
  70. ↑ "Michael FRATER | Profile | World Athletics". worldathletics.org. Retrieved 2021-07-30.
  71. 1 2 "Yohan BLAKE | Profile | World Athletics". worldathletics.org. Retrieved 2021-07-30.
  72. ↑ "John Regis | Profile | World Athletics". worldathletics.org. Retrieved 2021-07-30.
  73. ↑ "Ade Mafe | Profile | World Athletics". worldathletics.org. Retrieved 2021-07-30.
  74. ↑ "Darren Braithwaite | Profile | World Athletics". www.worldathletics.org. Retrieved 2021-07-30.
  75. ↑ "Linford Christie | Profile | World Athletics". worldathletics.org. Retrieved 2021-07-30.
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  77. ↑ "Nickel Ashmeade | Profile | World Athletics". worldathletics.org. Retrieved 2021-07-30.
  78. ↑ "Warren Weir | Profile | World Athletics". worldathletics.org. Retrieved 2021-07-30.
  79. ↑ "Germaine BROWN | Profile | World Athletics". worldathletics.org. Retrieved 2021-07-30.
  80. ↑ "Amere Lattin | Profile | World Athletics". worldathletics.org. Retrieved 2021-07-30.
  81. ↑ "Obi IGBOKWE | Profile | World Athletics". www.worldathletics.org. Retrieved 2021-07-30.
  82. ↑ "Jermaine Holt - Track and Field". University of Houston Athletics. Retrieved 2021-07-30.
  83. ↑ "Kahmari MONTGOMERY | Profile | World Athletics". worldathletics.org. Retrieved 2021-07-30.
  84. ↑ "Michael Johnson | Profile | World Athletics". worldathletics.org. Retrieved 2021-07-30.
  85. ↑ "Harry Reynolds | Profile | World Athletics". worldathletics.org. Retrieved 2021-07-30.
  86. ↑ "Quincy Watts | Profile | World Athletics". www.worldathletics.org. Retrieved 2021-07-30.
  87. ↑ "Andrew Valmon - Head Track Coach - Staff Directory". University of Maryland Athletics. Retrieved 2021-07-30.
  88. ↑ Lombardo, Michael P.; Deaner, Robert O. (2014-06-26). "You can't teach speed: sprinters falsify the deliberate practice model of expertise". PeerJ. 2: e445. doi: 10.7717/peerj.445 . ISSN   2167-8359. PMC   4081292 . PMID   25024914.
  89. ↑ Scott, Robert A.; Irving, Rachael; Irwin, Laura; Morrison, Errol; Charlton, Vilma; Austin, Krista; Tladi, Dawn; Deason, Michael; Headley, Samuel A.; Kolkhorst, Fred W.; Yang, Nan; North, Kathryn; Pitsiladis, Yannis P. (1 January 2010). "ACTN3 and ACE genotypes in elite Jamaican and US sprinters". Medicine and Science in Sports and Exercise. 42 (1): 107–112. doi: 10.1249/MSS.0b013e3181ae2bc0 . PMID   20010124.
  90. ↑ Eynon, Nir; Hanson, Erik D.; Lucia, Alejandro; Houweling, Peter J.; Garton, Fleur; North, Kathryn N.; Bishop, David J. (1 September 2013). "Genes for elite power and sprint performance: ACTN3 leads the way". Sports Medicine (Auckland, N.Z.). 43 (9): 803–817. doi:10.1007/s40279-013-0059-4. PMID   23681449. S2CID   207492970.
  91. ↑ Husbands, Chris. (30 September 2013). Sprinting : training, techniques and improving performance. Ramsbury. ISBN   978-1-84797-645-1. OCLC   859777344.{{cite book}}: CS1 maint: location missing publisher (link)

Related Research Articles

Middle-distance running events are track races longer than sprints, up to 3000 metres. The standard middle distances are the 800 metres, 1500 metres and mile run, although the 3000 metres may also be classified as a middle-distance event. The 1500 m came about as a result of running 3+3⁄4 laps of a 400 m outdoor track or 7+1⁄2 laps of a 200 m indoor track, which were commonplace in continental Europe in the 20th century.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Hurdling</span> Group of track and field events

Hurdling is the act of jumping over an obstacle at a high speed or in a sprint. In the early 19th century, hurdlers ran at and jumped over each hurdle, landing on both feet and checking their forward motion. Today, the dominant step patterns are the 3-step for high hurdles, 7-step for low hurdles, and 15-step for intermediate hurdles. Hurdling is a highly specialized form of obstacle racing, and is part of the sport of athletics. In hurdling events, barriers known as hurdles are set at precisely measured heights and distances. Each athlete must pass over the hurdles; passing under or intentionally knocking over hurdles will result in disqualification.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Relay race</span> Team sport in athletics, swimming, etc

A relay race is a racing competition where members of a team take turns completing parts of racecourse or performing a certain action. Relay races take the form of professional races and amateur games. Relay races are common in running, orienteering, swimming, cross-country skiing, biathlon, or ice skating. In the Olympic Games, there are several types of relay races that are part of track and field. Relay race, also called Relay, is a track-and-field sport consisting of a set number of stages (legs), usually four, each leg run by different members of a team. The runner finishing one leg is usually required to pass the next runner a stick-like object known as a "baton" while both are running in a marked exchange zone. In most relays, team members cover equal distances: Olympic events for both men and women are the 400-metre and 1,600-metre relays. Some non-Olympic relays are held at distances of 800 m, 3,200 m, and 6,000 m. In the less frequently run medley relays, however, the athletes cover different distances in a prescribed order—as in a sprint medley of 200, 200, 400, 800 metres or a distance medley of 1,200, 400, 800, 1,600 metres.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Hicham El Guerrouj</span> Moroccan middle-distance runner

Hicham El Guerrouj is a retired Moroccan middle-distance runner. El Guerrouj is the current world record holder for the 1500 metres and mile events, and the former world record holder in the 2000 metres. He is the only man since Paavo Nurmi to win a gold medal in both the 1500 m and 5000 metres at the same Olympic Games.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">800 metres</span> Middle-distance running event

The 800 metres, or meters, is a common track running event. It is the shortest commonly run middle-distance running event. The 800 metres is run over two laps of an outdoor (400-metre) track and has been an Olympic event since the first modern games in 1896. During the winter track season the event is usually run by completing four laps of an indoor 200-metre track.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">400 metres hurdles</span> Track and field hurdling event

The 400 metres hurdles is a track and field hurdling event. The event has been on the Olympic athletics programme since 1900 for men and since 1984 for women.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">400 metres</span> Sprint running event

The 400 metres, or 400-meter dash, is a sprint event in track and field competitions. It has been featured in the athletics programme at the Summer Olympics since 1896 for men and since 1964 for women. On a standard outdoor running track, it is one lap around the track. Runners start in staggered positions and race in separate lanes for the entire course. In many countries, athletes previously competed in the 440-yard dash (402.336 m)—which is a quarter of a mile and was referred to as the "quarter-mile"—instead of the 400 m (437.445 yards), though this distance is now obsolete.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">100 metres</span> Sprint race

The 100 metres, or 100-meter dash, is a sprint race in track and field competitions. The shortest common outdoor running distance, the 100-meter (109.36 yd) dash is one of the most popular and prestigious events in the sport of athletics. It has been contested at the Summer Olympics since 1896 for men and since 1928 for women. The inaugural World Championships were in 1983.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">200 metres</span> Sprint running event

The 200 metres, or 200-meter dash, is a sprint running event. On an outdoor 400 metre racetrack, the race begins on the curve and ends on the home straight, so a combination of techniques is needed to successfully run the race. A slightly shorter race, called the stadion and run on a straight track, was the first recorded event at the ancient Olympic Games. The 200 m places more emphasis on speed endurance than shorter sprint distances as athletes predominantly rely on anaerobic energy system during the 200 m sprint. Similarly to other sprint distances, the 200 m begins from the starting blocks. When the sprinters adopt the 'set' position in the blocks they are able to adopt a more efficient starting posture and isometrically preload their muscles. This enables them to stride forwards more powerfully when the race begins and start faster.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">60 metres</span> Track and field sprint race

60 metres, or 60-meter dash, is a sprint event in track and field. It is a championship event for indoor championships, normally dominated by the best outdoor 100 metres runners. At indoor events, the 60 metres is run on lanes set out in the middle of the 'field', as is the hurdles event over the same distance, thus avoiding some of the effects of the banked track encircling the venue, upon which other track events in indoor events are run. At outdoor venues it is a rare distance, at least for senior athletes. The format of the event is similar to other sprint distances. The sprinters follow three initial instructions: 'on your marks', instructing them to take up position in the starting blocks; 'set', instructing them to adopt a more efficient starting posture, which also isometrically preloads their muscles. This will enable them to start faster. The final instruction is the firing of the starter's pistol. Upon hearing this the sprinters stride forwards from the blocks.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">1500 metres</span> Middle distance running event, "the metric mile"

The 1500 metres or 1,500-metre run is the foremost middle distance track event in athletics. The distance has been contested at the Summer Olympics since 1896 and the World Championships in Athletics since 1983. It is equivalent to 1.5 kilometers or approximately 15⁄16 miles. The event is closely associated with its slightly longer cousin, the mile race, from which it derives its nickname "the metric mile".

<span class="mw-page-title-main">10,000 metres</span> Common long distance running event

The 10,000 metres or the 10,000-metre run is a common long-distance track running event. The event is part of the athletics programme at the Olympic Games and the World Athletics Championships, and is common at championship-level events. The race consists of 25 laps around an Olympic-sized track. It is less commonly held at track and field meetings due to its duration. The 10,000-metre track race is usually distinguished from its road running counterpart, the 10K run, by referring to the distance in metres rather than kilometres.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">110 metres hurdles</span> Track and field hurdling event

The 110 metres hurdles, or 110-metre hurdles, is a hurdling track and field event for men. It is included in the athletics programme at the Summer Olympic Games. The female counterpart is the 100 metres hurdles. As part of a racing event, ten hurdles of 42 inches (106.7 cm) in height are evenly spaced along a straight course of 110 metres. They are positioned so that they will fall over if bumped into by the runner. Fallen hurdles do not carry a fixed time penalty for the runners, but they have a significant pull-over weight which slows down the run. Like the 100 metres sprint, the 110 metres hurdles begins in the starting blocks.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">100 metres hurdles</span> Track and field event

The 100 metres hurdles, or 100-meter hurdles, is a track and field event run mainly by women. For the race, ten hurdles of a height of 33 inches (83.8 cm) are placed along a straight course of 100 metres (109.36 yd). The first hurdle is placed after a run-up of 13 metres from the starting line. The next 9 hurdles are set at a distance of 8.5 metres from each other, and the home stretch from the last hurdle to the finish line is 10.5 metres long. The hurdles are set up so that they will fall over if bumped into by the runner, but weighted so this is disadvantageous. Fallen hurdles do not count against runners provided that they do not run into them on purpose. Like the 100 metres sprint, the 100 m hurdles begins with athletes in starting blocks.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">5000 metres</span> Long-distance track running event

The 5000 metres or 5000-metre run is a common long-distance running event in track and field, approximately equivalent to 3 miles 188 yards or 16,404 feet 2 inches. It is one of the track events in the Olympic Games and the World Championships in Athletics, run over 12+1⁄2 laps of a standard track. The same distance in road running is called a 5K run; referring to the distance in metres rather than kilometres serves to disambiguate the two events. The 5000 m has been present on the Olympic programme since 1912 for men and since 1996 for women. Prior to 1996, women had competed in an Olympic 3000 metres race since 1984. The 5000 m has been held at each of the World Championships in Athletics in men's competition and since 1995 in women's.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">3000 metres</span> Long-distance track running event

The 3000 metres or 3000-metre run is a track running event, also commonly known as the "3K" or "3K run", where 7.5 laps are run around an outdoor 400 m track, or 15 laps around a 200 m indoor track.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">3000 metres steeplechase</span> Most common distance for the steeplechase in track and field

The 3000 metres steeplechase or 3000-meter steeplechase is the most common distance for the steeplechase in track and field. It is an obstacle race over the distance of the 3000 metres, which derives its name from the horse racing steeplechase.

The 10-second barrier is the physical and psychological barrier of completing the 100 metres sprint in under ten seconds. The achievement is traditionally regarded as the hallmark of a world-class male sprinter. Its significance has become less important since the late 1990s, as an increasing number of runners have surpassed the ten seconds mark. The current men's world record holder is Usain Bolt, who ran a 9.58 at the 2009 IAAF World Championship competition.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Michael Norman (sprinter)</span> American sprinter

Michael Arthur Norman Jr. is an American sprinter. He previously held the world best time in the indoor 400 meters at 44.52 seconds. Outdoors, his 43.45, set at the 2019 Mt. SAC Relays is tied as the #4 on the all time list. In 2016, he became the world junior champion in both the 200 meters and 4×100 meter relay. In 2022, he became the world champion in both the 400 meters and 4x400 meter relay.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Erriyon Knighton</span> American sprinter

Erriyon Knighton is an American sprinter specializing in the 100 meters and 200 meters. At the age of 18, he won the bronze medal in the 200 m at the 2022 World Athletics Championships, becoming the youngest ever individual sprint medalist in Championships history. He is the 2023 U.S. Champion in the 200 meters.

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