Stockholm Convention on Persistent Organic Pollutants

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Stockholm Convention on Persistent Organic Pollutants
Logo Stockholm Convention.svg
The logo of the Stockholm Convention Secretariat
Type United Nations treaty
Signed22 May 2001
Location Stockholm, Sweden
Effective17 May 2004
ConditionNinety days after the ratification by at least 50 signatory states
Signatories152 [1]
Parties186 [1]
Depositary Secretary-General of the United Nations
LanguagesArabic, Chinese, English, French, Russian, Spanish
pops.int
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  State parties to the Stockholm Convention as of 2022

Stockholm Convention on Persistent Organic Pollutants is an international environmental treaty, signed on 22 May 2001 in Stockholm and effective from 17 May 2004, that aims to eliminate or restrict the production and use of persistent organic pollutants (POPs). [2]

Contents

History

In 1995, the Governing Council of the United Nations Environment Programme (UNEP) called for global action to be taken on POPs, which it defined as "chemical substances that persist in the environment, bio-accumulate through the food web, and pose a risk of causing adverse effects to human health and the environment".

Following this, the Intergovernmental Forum on Chemical Safety (IFCS) and the International Programme on Chemical Safety (IPCS) prepared an assessment of the 12 worst offenders, known as the dirty dozen.

The INC met five times between June 1998 and December 2000 to elaborate the convention, and delegates adopted the Stockholm Convention on POPs at the Conference of the Plenipotentiaries convened from 22 to 23 May 2001 in Stockholm, Sweden. The negotiations for the convention were completed on 23 May 2001 in Stockholm. The convention entered into force on 17 May 2004 with ratification by an initial 128 parties and 151 signatories. Co-signatories agree to outlaw nine of the dirty dozen chemicals, limit the use of DDT to malaria control, and curtail inadvertent production of dioxins and furans.

Parties to the convention have agreed to a process by which persistent toxic compounds can be reviewed and added to the convention, if they meet certain criteria for persistence and transboundary threat. The first set of new chemicals to be added to the convention were agreed at a conference in Geneva on 8 May 2009.

As of September 2022, there are 186 parties to the convention (185 states and the European Union). [1] Notable non-ratifying states include the United States, Israel, and Malaysia.

The Stockholm Convention was adopted to EU legislation in Regulation (EC) No 850/2004. [3] In 2019, the latter was replaced by Regulation (EU) 2019/1021. [4]

Summary of provisions

Key elements of the Convention include the requirement that developed countries provide new and additional financial resources and measures to eliminate production and use of intentionally produced POPs, eliminate unintentionally produced POPs where feasible, and manage and dispose of POPs wastes in an environmentally sound manner. Precaution is exercised throughout the Stockholm Convention, with specific references in the preamble, the objective, and the provision on identifying new POPs.

Persistent Organic Pollutants Review Committee

When adopting the convention, provision was made for a procedure to identify additional POPs and the criteria to be considered in doing so. At the first meeting of the Conference of the Parties (COP1), held in Punta del Este, Uruguay, from 2–6 May 2005, the POPRC was established to consider additional candidates nominated for listing under the convention.

The committee is composed of 31 experts nominated by parties from the five United Nations regional groups and reviews nominated chemicals in three stages. The Committee first determines whether the substance fulfills POP screening criteria detailed in Annex D of the convention, relating to its persistence, bioaccumulation, potential for long-range environmental transport (LRET), and toxicity. If a substance is deemed to fulfill these requirements, the Committee then drafts a risk profile according to Annex E to evaluate whether the substance is likely, as a result of its LRET, to lead to significant adverse human health and/or environmental effects and therefore warrants global action. Finally, if the POPRC finds that global action is warranted, it develops a risk management evaluation, according to Annex F, reflecting socioeconomic considerations associated with possible control measures. Based on this, the POPRC decides to recommend that the COP list the substance under one or more of the annexes to the convention. The POPRC has met annually in Geneva, Switzerland, since its establishment.

The seventh meeting of the Persistent Organic Pollutants Review Committee (POPRC-7) of the Stockholm Convention on Persistent Organic Pollutants (POPs) took place from 10 to 14 October 2011 in Geneva. POPRC-8 was held from 15 to 19 October 2012 in Geneva, POPRC-9 to POPRC-15 were held in Rome, while POPRC-16 needed to be held online.

Listed substances

There were initially twelve distinct chemicals ("dirty dozen") listed in three categories. Two chemicals, hexachlorobenzene and polychlorinated biphenyls, were listed in both categories A and C. [5] Currently, five chemicals are listed in both categories.

AnnexChemical CAS number Year of listing decisionSpecific exemptions or acceptable purposes
ProductionUse
A: Elimination Aldrin 309-00-22001 [6] nonenone
A: Elimination α-Hexachlorocyclohexane 319-84-62009 [7] nonenone
A: Elimination β-Hexachlorocyclohexane 319-85-72009 [7] nonenone
A: Elimination Chlordane 57-74-92001 [6] nonenone
A: Elimination Chlordecone 143-50-02009 [7] nonenone
A: Elimination Decabromodiphenyl ether 1163-19-52017 [8] As allowed for the parties listed in the register of specific exemptionsVehicles, aircraft, textile, additives in plastic housings etc., polyurethane foam for building insulation
A: Elimination Dechlorane plus 13560-89-9, 135821-03-3, 135821-74-82023 [9] none
B: Restriction DDT 50-29-32001 [6] Production for the specified usesDisease vector control
A: Elimination Dicofol 115-32-22019 [10] nonenone
A: Elimination Dieldrin 60-57-12001 [6] nonenone
A: Elimination Endosulfan 115-29-7, 959-98-8, 33213-65-92011 [11] As allowed for the parties listed in the register of specific exemptionsCrop-pest complexes
A: Elimination Endrin 72-20-82001 [6] nonenone
A: Elimination Heptachlor 76-44-82001 [6] nonenone
A: Elimination Hexabromobiphenyl 36355-01-82009 [7] nonenone
A: Elimination Hexabromocyclododecane 25637-99-4, 3194-55-6, 134237-50-6, 134237-51-7, 134237-52-82013 [12] As allowed for the parties listed in the register of specific exemptionsExpanded polystyrene and extruded polystyrene in buildings
A: Elimination Hexabromodiphenyl ether and heptabromodiphenyl ether various2009 [7] noneRecycling under certain conditions
A: Elimination
C: Unintentional production		 Hexachlorobenzene 118-74-12001 [6] nonenone
A: Elimination
C: Unintentional production		 Hexachlorobutadiene 87-68-32015 [13] nonenone
A: Elimination Lindane 58-89-92009 [7] noneHuman health pharmaceutical for control of head lice and scabies as second line treatment
A: Elimination Methoxychlor 2023 [9] nonenone
A: Elimination Mirex 2385-85-52001 [6] nonenone
A: Elimination
C: Unintentional production		 Pentachlorobenzene 608-93-52009 [7] nonenone
A: Elimination Pentachlorophenol and its salts and estersvarious2015 [13] Production for the specified usesUtility poles and cross-arms


A: Elimination Perfluorohexane sulfonic acid (PFHxS), its salts and PFHxS-related compoundsvarious2022 [14] nonenone
A: Elimination Perfluorooctanoic acid (PFOA), its salts and PFOA-related compoundsvarious2019 [10] Production for the specified uses, with the exception of fire-fighting foamsvarious
B: Restriction Perfluorooctane sulfonic acid (PFOS), its salts and perfluorooctane sulfonyl fluoride various2009 [7] Production for the specified usesHard metal plating, insect baits for control of leaf-cutting ants, fire-fighting foams
A: Elimination
C: Unintentional production		 Polychlorinated biphenyls (PCBs)various2001 [6] nonenone
C: Unintentional production Polychlorinated dibenzodioxins and dibenzofurans (PCDD/PCDF)various2001 [6] ––
A: Elimination
C: Unintentional production		 Polychlorinated naphthalenes various2015 [13] Production for the specified usesProduction of polyfluorinated naphthalenes, including octafluoronaphthalene
A: Elimination Tetrabromodiphenyl ether and pentabromodiphenyl ether various2009 [7] noneRecycling under certain conditions
A: EliminationShort-chain chlorinated paraffins (C10–13; chlorine content > 48%)85535-84-8, 68920-70-7, 71011-12-6, 85536-22-7, 85681-73-8, 108171-26-22017 [8] Production for the specified usesAdditives in transmission belts, rubber conveyor belts, leather, lubricant additives, tubes for outdoor decoration bulbs, paints, adhesives, metal processing, plasticizers
A: Elimination Toxaphene 8001-35-22001 [6] nonenone
A: Elimination UV-328 25973-55-12023 [9] As allowed for the parties listed in the register of specific exemptions

Chemicals newly proposed for inclusion in Annexes A, B, C

POPRC-7 considered three proposals for listing in Annexes A, B and/or C of the convention: chlorinated naphthalenes (CNs), hexachlorobutadiene (HCBD) and pentachlorophenol (PCP), its salts and esters. The proposal is the first stage of the POPRC's work in assessing a substance, and requires the POPRC to assess whether the proposed chemical satisfies the criteria in Annex D of the convention. The criteria for forwarding a proposed chemical to the risk profile preparation stage are persistence, bioaccumulation, potential for long-range environmental transport (LRET), and adverse effects.

POPRC-8 proposed hexabromocyclododecane for listing in Annex A, with specific exemptions for production and use in expanded polystyrene and extruded polystyrene in buildings. This proposal was agreed at the sixth Conference of Parties on 28 April-10 May 2013. [15] [16]

POPRC-9 proposed di-, tri-, tetra-, penta-, hexa-, hepta- and octa-chlorinated napthalenes, and hexachlorobutadiene for listing in Annexes A and C. It also set up further work on pentachlorophenol, its salts and esters, and decabromodiphenyl ether, perfluorooctanesulfonic acid, its salts and perfluorooctane sulfonyl chloride. [17]

POPRC-15 proposed PFHxS for listing in Annex A without specific exemptions. [18]

Currently, chlorpyrifos, long-chain perfluorocarboxylic acids and medium-chain chlorinated paraffins are under review. [19]

Controversies

Although some critics have alleged that the treaty is responsible for the continuing death toll from malaria, in reality the treaty specifically permits the public health use of DDT for the control of mosquitoes (the malaria vector). [20] [21] [22] There are also ways to prevent high amounts of DDT consumed by using other malaria controls such as window screens. As long as there are specific measures taken, such as use of DDT indoors, then the limited amount of DDT can be used in a regulated fashion. [23] From a developing country perspective, a lack of data and information about the sources, releases, and environmental levels of POPs hampers negotiations on specific compounds, and indicates a strong need for research. [24] [25]

Another controversy would be certain POPs (which are continually active, specifically in the Arctic Biota) that were mentioned in the Stockholm Convention, but were not part of the Dirty Dozen such as perfluorooctane sulfonate (PFOS). [26] PFOS have many general uses such as stain repellents but have many properties which can make it a dangerous due to the fact that PFOS can be highly resistant to environmental breakdown. PFOS can be toxic in terms of increased offspring death, decrease in body weight, and the disruption of neurological systems. What makes this compound controversial is the economic and political impact it can have among various countries and businesses. [27]

Ongoing negotiations

Related Research Articles

<span class="mw-page-title-main">DDT</span> Organochloride known for its insecticidal properties

Dichlorodiphenyltrichloroethane, commonly known as DDT, is a colorless, tasteless, and almost odorless crystalline chemical compound, an organochloride. Originally developed as an insecticide, it became infamous for its environmental impacts. DDT was first synthesized in 1874 by the Austrian chemist Othmar Zeidler. DDT's insecticidal action was discovered by the Swiss chemist Paul Hermann Müller in 1939. DDT was used in the second half of World War II to limit the spread of the insect-borne diseases malaria and typhus among civilians and troops. Müller was awarded the Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine in 1948 "for his discovery of the high efficiency of DDT as a contact poison against several arthropods". The WHO's anti-malaria campaign of the 1950s and 1960s relied heavily on DDT and the results were promising, though there was a resurgence in developing countries afterwards.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Pollutant</span> Substance or energy damaging to the environment

A pollutant or novel entity is a substance or energy introduced into the environment that has undesired effects, or adversely affects the usefulness of a resource. These can be both naturally forming or anthropogenic in origin. Pollutants result in environmental pollution or become public health concerns when they reach a concentration high enough to have significant negative impacts.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Lindane</span> Organochlorine chemical and an isomer of hexachlorocyclohexane

Lindane, also known as gamma-hexachlorocyclohexane (γ-HCH), gammaxene, Gammallin and benzene hexachloride (BHC), is an organochlorine chemical and an isomer of hexachlorocyclohexane that has been used both as an agricultural insecticide and as a pharmaceutical treatment for lice and scabies.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Perfluorooctanesulfonic acid</span> Fluorosurfactant and persistent organic pollutant

Perfluorooctanesulfonic acid (PFOS) is a chemical compound having an eight-carbon fluorocarbon chain and a sulfonic acid functional group and thus a perfluorosulfonic acid. It is an anthropogenic (man-made) fluorosurfactant, now regarded as a global pollutant. PFOS was the key ingredient in Scotchgard, a fabric protector made by 3M, and related stain repellents. The acronym "PFOS" refers to the parent sulfonic acid and to various salts of perfluorooctanesulfonate. These are all colorless or white, water-soluble solids. Although of low acute toxicity, PFOS has attracted much attention for its pervasiveness and environmental impact. It was added to Annex B of the Stockholm Convention on Persistent Organic Pollutants in May 2009.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Persistent organic pollutant</span> Organic compounds that are resistant to environmental degradation

Persistent organic pollutants (POPs) are organic compounds that are resistant to degradation through chemical, biological, and photolytic processes. They are toxic chemicals that adversely affect human health and the environment around the world. Because they can be transported by wind and water, most POPs generated in one country can and do affect people and wildlife far from where they are used and released.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Dieldrin</span> Chemical compound

Dieldrin is an organochlorine compound originally produced in 1948 by J. Hyman & Co, Denver, as an insecticide. Dieldrin is closely related to aldrin, which reacts further to form dieldrin. Aldrin is not toxic to insects; it is oxidized in the insect to form dieldrin which is the active compound. Both dieldrin and aldrin are named after the Diels-Alder reaction which is used to form aldrin from a mixture of norbornadiene and hexachlorocyclopentadiene.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Endrin</span> Chemical compound

Endrin is an organochlorine compound with the chemical formula C12H8Cl6O that was first produced in 1950 by Shell and Velsicol Chemical Corporation. It was primarily used as an insecticide, as well as a rodenticide and piscicide. It is a colourless, odorless solid, although commercial samples are often off-white. Endrin was manufactured as an emulsifiable solution known commercially as Endrex. The compound became infamous as a persistent organic pollutant and for this reason it is banned in many countries.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Methoxychlor</span> Synthetic organochloride insecticide, now obsolete.

Methoxychlor is a synthetic organochloride insecticide, now obsolete. Tradenames for methoxychlor include Chemform, Maralate, Methoxo, Methoxcide, Metox, and Moxie.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Hexabromocyclododecane</span> Chemical compound

Hexabromocyclododecane is a brominated flame retardant. It consists of twelve carbon, eighteen hydrogen, and six bromine atoms tied to the ring. Its primary application is in extruded (XPS) and expanded (EPS) polystyrene foam that is used as thermal insulation in the building industry. Other uses are upholstered furniture, automobile interior textiles, car cushions and insulation blocks in trucks, packaging material, video cassette recorder housing and electric and electronic equipment. According to UNEP, "HBCD is produced in China, Europe, Japan, and the USA. The known current annual production is approximately 28,000 tonnes per year. The main share of the market volume is used in Europe and China". Due to its persistence, toxicity, and ecotoxicity, the Stockholm Convention on Persistent Organic Pollutants decided in May 2013 to list hexabromocyclododecane in Annex A to the convention with specific exemptions for production and use in expanded polystyrene and extruded polystyrene in buildings. Because HBCD has 16 possible stereo-isomers with different biological activities, the substance poses a difficult problem for manufacture and regulation.

Pentabromodiphenyl ether is a brominated flame retardant which belongs to the group of polybrominated diphenyl ethers (PBDEs). Because of their toxicity and persistence, their industrial production is to be eliminated under the Stockholm Convention, a treaty to control and phase out major persistent organic pollutants (POP).

§§

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Global distillation</span>

Global distillation or the grasshopper effect is the geochemical process by which certain chemicals, most notably persistent organic pollutants (POPs), are transported from warmer to colder regions of the Earth, particularly the poles and mountain tops. Global distillation explains why relatively high concentrations of POPs have been found in the Arctic environment and in the bodies of animals and people who live there, even though most of the chemicals have not been used in the region in appreciable amounts.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Aarhus Protocol on Persistent Organic Pollutants</span>

The Aarhus Protocol on Persistent Organic Pollutants, a 1998 protocol on persistent organic pollutants (POPs), is an addition to the 1979 Geneva Convention on Long-Range Transboundary Air Pollution (LRTAP). The Protocol seeks "to control, reduce or eliminate discharge, emissions and losses of persistent organic pollutants" in Europe, some former Soviet Union countries, and the United States, in order to reduce their transboundary fluxes so as to protect human health and the environment from adverse effects.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Perfluorooctanesulfonyl fluoride</span> Chemical compound

Perfluorooctanesulfonyl fluoride (POSF) is a synthetic perfluorinated compound with a sulfonyl fluoride functional group. It is used to make perfluorooctanesulfonic acid (PFOS) and PFOS-based compounds. These compounds have a variety of industrial and consumer uses, but POSF-derived substances ultimately degrade to form PFOS.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Pentachlorobenzene</span> Chemical compound

Pentachlorobenzene (PeCB) is a chemical compound with the molecular formula C6HCl5 which is a chlorinated aromatic hydrocarbon. It consists of a benzene ring substituted with five chlorine atoms. PeCB was once used industrially for a variety of uses, but because of environmental concerns there are currently no large scale uses of PeCB. Pentachlorobenzene is a known persistent organic pollutant (POP) and banned globally by the Stockholm Convention on Persistent Organic Pollutants in 2009.

Safe Planet: the United Nations Campaign for Responsibility on Hazardous Chemicals and Wastes is the UN Environment Programme (UNEP) and UN Food and Agricultural Organization-led global public awareness and outreach campaign for ensuring the safety of human health and the environment against hazardous chemicals and wastes.

The Global Monitoring Plan (GMP) under the Stockholm Convention on Persistent Organic Pollutants is a programme that enables collection of comparable monitoring data from all regions of the world to assess the effectiveness of the Stockholm Convention in minimizing human and environmental exposure to persistent organic pollutants (POPs). To know whether the levels of POPs are increasing or decreasing over time, information on environmental and human exposure levels of these chemicals should enable detection of trends. GMP looks at background levels of POPs at locations not influenced by local sources, such as ‘hot spots’. For human sampling, the focus is on the general population rather than on individuals who may have suffered high exposure to POPs.

Persistent, bioaccumulative and toxic substances (PBTs) are a class of compounds that have high resistance to degradation from abiotic and biotic factors, high mobility in the environment and high toxicity. Because of these factors PBTs have been observed to have a high order of bioaccumulation and biomagnification, very long retention times in various media, and widespread distribution across the globe. Most PBTs in the environment are either created through industry or are unintentional byproducts.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Perfluorohexanesulfonic acid</span> Chemical compound

Perfluorohexanesulfonic acid (PFHxS) is a synthetic chemical compound. It is one of many compounds collectively known as per- and polyfluoroalkyl substances (PFASs). It is an anionic fluorosurfactant and a persistent organic pollutant with bioaccumulative properties. Although the use of products containing PFHxS and other PFASs have been banned or are being phased out in many jurisdictions, it remains ubiquitous in many environments and within the general population, and is one of the most commonly detected PFASs.

Sulfluramid (N-EtFOSA) is a chemical compound from the group of sulfonic acid amides and per- and polyfluoroalkyl substances (PFASs) that is effective as an insecticide.

References

  1. 1 2 3 United Nations Treaty Collection: CHAPTER XXVII – ENVIRONMENT – 15. Stockholm Convention on Persistent Organic Pollutants
  2. ↑ Lallas, Peter L. (2001). "The Stockholm Convention on Persistent Organic Pollutants". American Journal of International Law. 95 (3): 692–708. doi:10.2307/2668517. ISSN   0002-9300. JSTOR   2668517. S2CID   144521094.
  3. ↑ "REGULATION (EC) No 850/2004 OF THE EUROPEAN PARLIAMENT AND OF THE COUNCIL of 29 April 2004 on persistent organic pollutants and amending Directive 79/117/EEC". Europa (web portal). Retrieved 12 April 2018.
  4. ↑ "REGULATION (EU) 2019/1021 OF THE EUROPEAN PARLIAMENT AND OF THE COUNCIL of 20 June 2019 on persistent organic pollutants (recast)". Europa (web portal). 25 June 2019. Retrieved 27 September 2019.
  5. ↑ Secretariat of the Stockholm Convention. "Measures to reduce or eliminate POPs" (PDF). Geneva. Retrieved 12 June 2009.
  6. 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 The 12 initial POPs under the Stockholm Convention
  7. 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 Governments unite to step-up reduction on global DDT reliance and add nine new chemicals under international treaty , Pressecommuniqué, 8 May 2009.
  8. 1 2 Reference: C.N.766.2017.TREATIES-XXVII.15 (Depositary Notification)
  9. 1 2 3 "Summary report 1–12 May 2023". IISD Earth Negotiations Bulletin. Retrieved 31 July 2023.
  10. 1 2 2019 Meetings of the Conferences of the Parties to the Basel, Rotterdam and Stockholm Conventions, 13 May 2019.
  11. ↑ United Nations targets widely-used pesticide endosulfan for phase out , Pressecommuniqué, 3 May 2011.
  12. ↑ "HBCD". pops.int. Retrieved 26 June 2019.
  13. 1 2 3 Secretariat of the Basel, Rotterdam and Stockholm Conventions: Countries move forward on important issues for sustainable management of chemicals and waste, press release, 16 May 2015.
  14. ↑ "Report of main proceedings for 9 June 2022".
  15. ↑ Convention, Stockholm. "HBCD Recommendation". pops.int. Retrieved 12 April 2018.
  16. ↑ Decision SC-6/13 – C.N.934.2013.TREATIES-XXVII.15 (Depositary Notification), 2013
  17. ↑ Convention, Stockholm. "Stockholm Convention > The Convention > POPs Review Committee > Meetings > POPRC 9 > Documents". pops.int. Retrieved 12 April 2018.
  18. ↑ "UN experts recommend elimination of additional hazardous chemicals to protect human health and the environment". BRSMeas. Retrieved 8 October 2019.
  19. ↑ "Chemicals proposed for listing under the Convention". pops.int. Retrieved 29 November 2023.
  20. ↑ Curtis, C. F. (2002), "Should the use of DDT be revived for malaria vector control?", Biomedica, 22 (4): 455–61, doi: 10.7705/biomedica.v22i4.1171 , PMID   12596442 .
  21. ↑ 10 Things You Need to Know about DDT Use under The Stockholm Convention (PDF), World Health Organization, 2005, archived from the original (PDF) on 4 March 2016.
  22. ↑ Bouwman, H. (2003), "POPs in southern Africa", Handbook of Environmental Chemistry. Vol. 3O: Persistent Organic Pollutants, pp. 297–320, archived from the original on 10 October 2007.
  23. ↑ World Health Organization. Global Malaria Programme (2011). "The use of DDT in malaria vector control : WHO position statement". Geneva: World Health Organization. Retrieved 11 November 2016.
  24. ↑ Bouwman, H. (2004), "South Africa and the Stockholm Convention on Persistent Organic Pollutants", S. Afr. J. Sci., 100 (7/8): 323–28
  25. ↑ Porta M.; Zumeta E (2002). "Implementing the Stockholm treaty on POPs [Editorial]". Occupational & Environmental Medicine. 59 (10): 651–652. doi:10.1136/oem.59.10.651. PMC   1740221 . PMID   12356922.
  26. ↑ Godduhn, Anna; Duffy, Lawrence K. (August 2003). "Multi-generation health risks of persistent organic pollution in the far north: use of the precautionary approach in the Stockholm Convention". Environmental Science and Policy. 6 (4): 341–353. doi:10.1016/S1462-9011(03)00061-3.
  27. ↑ Wang, Thanh; Wang, Yawei; Liao, Chunyang; Cai, Yaqi; Jiang, Guibin (15 July 2009). "Perspectives on the Inclusion of Perfluorooctane Sulfonate into the Stockholm Convention on Persistent Organic Pollutants 1". Environmental Science & Technology. 43 (14): 5171–5175. Bibcode:2009EnST...43.5171W. doi: 10.1021/es900464a . PMID   19708337.

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