Teenage pregnancy in the United States

Last updated

Teen births (aged 15-19) per 1,000 people by state (2015) US teen birth rate by state.svg
Teen births (aged 15–19) per 1,000 people by state (2015)

Teenage pregnancy in the United States occurs mostly unintentionally [1] and out of wedlock [2] [3] but has been declining almost continuously since the 1990s. [1] [4] [5] In 2022, the teenage birth rate fell to 13.5 per 1,000 girls aged 15 to 19, the lowest on record. [6] According to the Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC), this decline is due to abstinence and the use of contraception. [7] [8] However, the averages conceal significant ethnic or geographic differences within the nation. [9] The birth rates for Hispanic and African-American teens were more than double those of European-American teens, [10] while Asian-American adolescents have the lowest pregnancy and birth rates of all. [3] As of 2015, New Mexico, Texas, Oklahoma, Arkansas, Louisiana, and Mississippi had the highest adolescent birth rates in the Union. (See map.)

Contents

Despite the decline, the United States still has one of the highest teenage birth rates among industrialized nations. [11]

General facts and statistics

Teen pregnancy is defined as pregnancies in girls under the age of 20, regardless of marital status. [12]

Recent declines

The birth rates among teenagers 15 to 19 in the United States have fallen dramatically since the early 1990s. US birth rates for teens 15-19 Years by Race-Ethnicity 1991 and 2009.png
The birth rates among teenagers 15 to 19 in the United States have fallen dramatically since the early 1990s.

According to Child Trends research institute, prevalence of teen birth in the United States has plummeted between the early 1990s and 2020s. [4] [5] Teenage birth rates, as opposed to just pregnancies, peaked in 1991, when there were 61.8 births per 1,000 teens. [13] In 2014, 249,078 babies were born to girls 15 to 19 years of age, corresponding to a birth rate of 24.2 per 1,000 girls. [12] As of 2016, three in ten American girls fell pregnant before age 20, corresponding to almost 750,000 pregnancies a year. [14] An overwhelming majority (89%, as of 2016) of teenage births occurred outside of marriage, [15] and 16% of all girls became teen mothers. [16] Researchers from the Guttmacher Institute were able to show that the fall in teenage birthrates is likely not due to terminated pregnancies. The number of abortions remained the same or decreased in all U.S. states except for Vermont. [17]

In 2010, of the majority of pregnancies to adolescent females in the United States, an estimated 60% ended in live birth, 15% ended in miscarriage, and 30% in abortion. [15] The number of hospital stays for teen pregnancies decreased by 47 percent from 2000 to 2012, when there were 104,700 maternal hospital stays for pregnant teens. [18] However, most of the adolescents who give birth are over the age of 18. For example, in 2008, 6.6 pregnancies occurred per 1,000 teens aged 13–14. In other words, fewer than 1% of teens younger than 15 became pregnant in 2008. [19]

Contemporary teenagers are becoming better at avoiding pregnancies by abstinence or by using contraception. [20] A CDC analysis found that the rates of teens using a long-acting and reversible method of contraception, such as an intrauterine device (IUD), jumped from 0.4% in 2005 to 7.1% in 2013. [21] Adolescents are also less likely get married at their age. [22] Nearly 80% of teenage fathers do not marry the teenage mothers of their children. [23]

Attitudes

Most female teens report that they would be very upset (58%) or a little upset (29%) if they got pregnant, while the remaining 13% report that they would be a little or very pleased. [19] Most male teens report that they would be very upset (47%) or a little upset (34%) if they got someone pregnant, while the remaining 18% report that they would be a little or very pleased. [19]

Risk factors

Girls who were cohabiting, poorly educated, drug abusers, alcoholics, and came from low-income or unstable households were at the highest risks of unintentional pregnancies. [24] [25] [26] Teenage fathers have 10-15% lower annual earnings than teenagers who do not father children. [23] According to the Centers for Disease Control, more than four out of five, or 80%, of teenage pregnancies are unintended. [24]

Intentional pregnancies

According to the Journal of Pediatric Health Care, approximately 15% of all adolescent pregnancies are planned. Based upon interviews conducted with pregnant teenagers, there are particular themes based upon wants and needs. Some of the wants expressed by teens includes, "(a) the desire to be or be perceived as more grown up, with increased responsibility, independence and maturity; (b) a long history of desiring pregnancy and the maternal role; c) never having had anything to call their own and wanting something to care for and love and (d) the pregnancy was the natural next step in their life or their relationship with their boyfriend." [27]

Rates by ethnicity

U.S. teenage birth rates have declined for all racial or ethnic groups from 2016 to 2020. Asian Americans have the lowest rates of all. US Adolescent Birth Rates over Time.png
U.S. teenage birth rates have declined for all racial or ethnic groups from 2016 to 2020. Asian Americans have the lowest rates of all.

Black, Latino, and Native-American youths experience the highest rates of teenage pregnancy and childbirth. [12] For every 1,000 black boys in the United States, 29 of them are teenage fathers, compared to 14 per 1,000 white boys. [19] The rate of teen fatherhood declined 36% between 1991 and 2010, from 25 to 16 per 1,000 males aged 15–19. This decline was more substantial among blacks than among whites (50% vs. 26%) and about half of the rate among teen girls. [19] Studies show that Asians (23 per 1,000) and whites (43 per 1,000) have lower rates of pregnancy before the age of 20. [16] [19]

Teen birth rates decline by racial groups [9]

Teen birth rates declined from 2018 to 2019 for several racial groups and for Hispanics.1,2 Among 15- to 19-year-olds, teen birth rates decreased:

Rates for non-Hispanic American Indian/Alaska Natives (AI/AN), non-Hispanic Asians, and non-Hispanic Native Hawaiian, and other Pacific Islander teenagers were unchanged.

In 2019, the birth rates for Hispanic teens (25.3) and non-Hispanic Black teens (25.8) were more than two times higher than the rate for non-Hispanic White teens (11.4). The birth rate of American Indian/Alaska Native teens (29.2) was highest among all race/ethnicities.

Rates by region

In 2013, the lowest birth rates were reported in the Northeast, while the highest rates were located in the Southeast. [15]

US teen birth rates by state per 1000 girls aged 15-19 years 2009.png

Birth and abortion rates of girls ages 15–19, 2010 [28]

US StatePregnancy rate (per 1000)BirthrateAbortion rate% Abortion rate excluding stillborns and miscarriages
Alabama 6232917
Alaska 6427.81730
Arizona 6029.9918
Arkansas 7339.5914
California 5921.11938
Colorado 5020.31020
Connecticut 4411.52052
Delaware 1520.72847
Washington, D.C. 9028.43241
Florida 6022.51938
Georgia 6428.41324
Hawaii 6523.12342
Idaho 4723.2717
Illinois 5722.81532
Indiana 5328716
Iowa 4419.8923
Kansas 5327.6512
Kentucky 6235.3612
Louisiana 6935.81018
Maine 3716.51031
Maryland 5717.82245
Massachusetts 3710.61446
Michigan 5221.11432
Minnesota 3615.5825
Mississippi 7638914
Missouri 5427.2919
Montana 5326.41021
Nebraska 4322.2514
Nevada 6828.52034
New Hampshire 2811835
New Jersey 5113.12455
New Mexico 8037.81522
New York 6316.13258
North Carolina 5925.91224
North Dakota 4223.9618
Ohio 5425.11225
Oklahoma 6938.5813
Oregon 4719.31229
Pennsylvania 4913.81535
Rhode Island 4415.81641
South Carolina 6528.51323
South Dakota 4726.2411
Tennessee 6233918
Texas 7337.8915
Utah 3819.4413
Vermont 3214.2934
Virginia 4818.41433
Washington 4919.11637
West Virginia 6436.6917
Wisconsin 3918721
Wyoming 5630.1817

Parenting as a teenager

An anti-teenage pregnancy poster Anti-teenage pregnancy III.jpg
An anti-teenage pregnancy poster

About 25% of teenage mothers have a second child within 24 months of the first birth. [29]

Parenting as a teenager has detrimental effects on the parents as well as the children. Pregnant teenage girls tend to gain less weight than older mothers, due to the fact that they are still growing and competing for nutrients with the baby during the pregnancy. [30] Teenage parents are considerably more likely to drop out of high school in order to work. [14] [31] [32] This is because child-rearing is expensive and requires a lot of attention, and the typical teenager is unable to handle the responsibilities of schoolwork, earning a living, and childcare. [32] By turning to parenthood as such an early age, these teenagers often find themselves socially isolated from their peers. [32] Moreover, following the Great Recession of the late 2000s, young people take longer to gain financial independence than their counterparts three decades ago. It is much harder for teenage parents to be able to support a family compared to the past due to the competitive work environment. [22] Children born to teenage parents are more likely to be born prematurely, to do poorly at school, to live in poverty, and to suffer higher rates of abuse. [29] They also tend to repeat the cycle of early childbearing (out of wedlock) and early marriage of their parents. [33] The sons of teen mothers are 13% more likely to end up incarcerated, and the daughters of teenage mothers are 22% more likely to become teenage mothers. [29] More than 25% of teen mothers live in poverty during their 20s. [23]

Supporting teenage parents

"Happy Birthday Sweet 16" / "Pink or Blue, We Love You" cake Happy Birthday Sweet 16 and Pink or Blue, We Love You cake.jpg
"Happy Birthday Sweet 16" / "Pink or Blue, We Love You" cake

Some high schools in the United States offer a program for pregnant and parenting teens to continue their education. [34]

Studies have shown that when teen parents stay in school after being pregnant, they have a better chance of graduating high school. [35] Less than 2% of teen moms earn a college degree by age 30. [14] Many of these programs offer on-campus childcare. Some even require the pregnant and parenting teens to attend parenting classes or practicum classes. The parenting classes offer a place for these young parents to learn about the basic needs of a child. While, the practicum classes offer a hands on experience caring for the children in the childcare center.

Prevention

Preventing Teen Pregnancy graphic by Centers for Disease Control and Prevention Preventing Teen Pregnancy in the US-CDC Vital Signs-April 2011.pdf
Preventing Teen Pregnancy graphic by Centers for Disease Control and Prevention

The United States has the highest rates of teenage pregnancy and sexually transmitted diseases in developed countries. [36] The two primary reasons given by teenagers for not using protection is that the chance of becoming pregnant is small, and the failure to anticipate intercourse. [37]

The best method of reducing the consequences of teenage parenthood is by providing reproductive health services to prevent teenagers from becoming pregnant in the first place. [22] Prevention can not only be beneficial on a micro level but it is also beneficial on a more macro scale. Nationally, teen pregnancies cost tax payers an average of $9.4 billion each year. [12] These costs are associated with health care, foster care, criminal justice, public assistance and lost tax revenue. [29] Teen pregnancies can be prevented by increasing access and education on the proper use of contraceptives, [24] as well as parental involvement. The best method of prevention is to integrate sex and STD education into the middle and high school science curriculum as well as addressing the effects of teenage pregnancies in the social studies curriculum.

According to studies conducted by the American Journal of Public Health, the pregnancy rate in The United States can be predictable by analyzing two indexes, the contraceptive risk index and the overall pregnancy risk index. [38] Using these indexes with previous adolescent pregnancy data, 77% of the decline in pregnancy risk was attributed to contraceptive use. The conclusion from this studies and others, is that improved contraceptive use and teachings is responsible for the decline.

International comparison

The United States has a high adolescent birth rate relative to other developed nations Adolescent birth rate per 1,000 women aged 15-19, OWID.svg
The United States has a high adolescent birth rate relative to other developed nations

There are large differences in adolescent pregnancy rates among developed nations like Canada, France, Great Britain, Sweden and the United States. The United States has the highest number of teen pregnancies and the highest number of sexually transmitted infections compared to the other four countries. [11]

In France and Sweden during the late 1990s, pregnancies were 20 per 1,000 girls at ages 15–19. [11] In Canada and Great Britain the levels were twice that, and the United States the level was 4 times as high with 84 per 1,000 teenage girls pregnant. The likelihood of pregnant teenage girls having abortions across the four countries differ and exclude miscarriages. In the U.S. abortion rates for 15–19 years are 35%, compared to 69% in Sweden, 39% in Great Britain, 46% in Canada, and 51% in France. [11]

Quality of sex education varies across the U.S, with some states offering more comprehensive education than others. 39 states require "some" education related to sexuality. 25 states are required by law to teach sex and HIV education. 17 states only require the teaching of STIs. 20 states require provision of information on contraception, 39 states are required to provide information on abstinence. Eleven states have no requirement. [39]

In a 2014 paper, economists Melissa S. Kearney and Phillip B. Levine, both fellows of the Brookings Institution, were able to show that popular TV programs depicting the reality of teenage parenthood, such as MTV's 16 and Pregnant and its sequels ( Teen Mom , Teen Mom 2 , Teen Mom 3 , Teen Mom: Young and Pregnant), have played a significant role in the reduction of teenage childbearing. [40] The girls who watched any one of these shows also reported being able to predict the behaviors and intentions that result in teenage pregnancy. [41]

See also

Related Research Articles

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Sex education</span> Instruction on human sexuality issues

Sex education, also known as sexual education, sexualityeducation or sex ed, is the instruction of issues relating to human sexuality, including human sexual anatomy, sexual activity, sexual reproduction, safe sex, and birth control, sexual health, reproductive health, emotional relations and responsibilities, age of consent, and reproductive rights. Sex education that includes all of these issues is known as comprehensive sexuality education, and, especially in more socially conservative countries and parts of the United States, is often opposed to abstinence-only sex education, which only focuses on sexual abstinence. Sex education may be provided as part of school programs, public health campaigns, or by parents or caregivers. In some countries it is known as "Relationships and Sexual Health Education".

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Teenage pregnancy</span> Childbirth in human females under the age of 20

Teenage pregnancy, also known as adolescent pregnancy, is pregnancy in a female adolescent or young adult under the age of 20. Worldwide, pregnancy complications are the leading cause of death for women and girls 15 to 19 years old. The definition of teenage pregnancy includes those who are legally considered adults in their country. The WHO defines adolescence as the period between the ages of 10 and 19 years. Pregnancy can occur with sexual intercourse after the start of ovulation, which can happen before the first menstrual period (menarche). In healthy, well-nourished girls, the first period usually takes place between the ages of 12 and 13.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Family planning</span> Planning when to have children

Family planning is the consideration of the number of children a person wishes to have, including the choice to have no children, and the age at which they wish to have them. Things that may play a role on family planning decisions include marital situation, career or work considerations, financial situations. If sexually active, family planning may involve the use of contraception and other techniques to control the timing of reproduction.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Premarital sex</span> Sexual activity before marriage

Premarital sex is sexual activity which is practiced by people before they are married. Premarital sex is considered a sin by a number of religions and also considered a moral issue which is taboo in many cultures. Since the Sexual Revolution of the 1960s, it has become accepted by certain liberal movements, especially in Western countries. A 2014 Pew study on global morality found that premarital sex was considered particularly unacceptable in "Muslim Majority Countries", such as Malaysia, Jordan and Pakistan, each having over 90% disapproval, while people in Western European countries were the most accepting, with Spain, Germany, and France expressing less than 10% disapproval.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Birth rate</span> Total number of live births per 1,000 divided by time period

Birth rate, also known as natality, is the total number of live human births per 1,000 population for a given period divided by the length of the period in years. The number of live births is normally taken from a universal registration system for births; population counts from a census, and estimation through specialized demographic techniques. The birth rate is used to calculate population growth. The estimated average population may be taken as the mid-year population.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Sexual and reproductive health</span> State of the reproductive system without evidence of disease, disorders, or deficiencies

Sexual and reproductive health (SRH) is a field of research, health care, and social activism that explores the health of an individual's reproductive system and sexual well-being during all stages of their life. Sexual and reproductive health is more commonly defined as sexual and reproductive health and rights, to encompass individual agency to make choices about their sexual and reproductive lives.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Abstinence-only sex education</span> Form of sex education

Abstinence-only sex education is a form of sex education that teaches not having sex outside of marriage. It often excludes other types of sexual and reproductive health education, such as birth control and safe sex. In contrast, comprehensive sex education covers the use of birth control and sexual abstinence.

Adolescent sexuality is a stage of human development in which adolescents experience and explore sexual feelings. Interest in sexuality intensifies during the onset of puberty, and sexuality is often a vital aspect of teenagers' lives. Sexual interest may be expressed in a number of ways, such as flirting, kissing, masturbation, or having sex with a partner. Sexual interest among adolescents, as among adults, can vary greatly, and is influenced by cultural norms and mores, sex education, as well as comprehensive sexuality education provided, sexual orientation, and social controls such as age-of-consent laws.

The sexuality of US adolescents includes their feelings, behaviors and development, and the place adolescent sexuality has in American society, including the response of the government, educators, parents, and other interested groups.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Prevalence of teenage pregnancy</span> Overview of the prevalence of teenage pregnancy around the world

Industrialized and developing countries have distinctly different rates of teenage pregnancy. In Western countries such as the United States, Canada, Western Europe, Australia, and New Zealand, teen parents tend to be unmarried, and adolescent pregnancy is seen as a social issue.

Teenage pregnancy in the United Kingdom refers to the rate at which people under 20 fall pregnant in the United Kingdom. As of 2021, the rate of teenage conceptions in the United Kingdom was 5.226% percent of total conceptions, whereas 2.199% of all live births in the United Kingdom were to mothers under 20 years of age. The rate of teenage pregnancy is relatively high when compared with other developed countries; the only other Western countries with higher teenage pregnancy rates are the United States and New Zealand. A report in 2002 found that around half of all conceptions to under-18s were concentrated among the 30% most economically deprived population, with only 14% occurring among the 30% least deprived.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Teenage marriage</span> Matrimonial union of two adolescents

Teenage marriage is the union of two adolescents between the ages of 13 and 19. Many factors contribute to teenage marriage, such as love, teenage pregnancy, religion, security, wealth, family, peer pressure, arranged marriage, economic and/or political reasons, social advancement, and cultural reasons. Studies have shown that teenage married couples are often disadvantaged, may come from broken homes, may have little education, and work in low-status jobs in comparison with those that marry after adolescence.

Unintended pregnancies are pregnancies that are mistimed, unplanned or unwanted at the time of conception.

<i>16 and Pregnant</i> American reality television series

16 and Pregnant is an American reality television series that aired from June 11, 2009, to July 1, 2014, on the cable channel MTV. It followed the stories of pregnant teenage girls in high school dealing with the hardships of teenage pregnancy. Each episode featured a different teenage girl, with the episode typically beginning when she is 4+1⁄2 – 8 months into her pregnancy. The episode typically ends when the baby is a few months old. The series is produced in a documentary format, with an animation on notebook paper showing highlights during each episode preceding the commercial breaks. 16 and Pregnant has spawned five spin-off series: Teen Mom, Teen Mom 2, Teen Mom 3, Teen Mom: Young and Pregnant, and 16 and Recovering, which premiered on September 1, 2020.

In the United States, sex education is taught in two main forms: comprehensive sex education and abstinence-only as part of the Adolescent Family Life Act, or AFLA. Comprehensive sex education is also called abstinence-based, abstinence-plus, abstinence-plus-risk-reduction, and sexual risk reduction sex education. This approach covers abstinence as a choice option, but also informs adolescents about age of consent and the availability of contraception and techniques to avoid contraction of sexually transmitted infections. Every state within the U.S. has a mandated AIDS Education Program.

Both the Guttmacher Institute and the Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC) regularly report abortion statistics in the United States. They use different methodologies, so they report somewhat different abortion rates, but they show similar trends. The Guttmacher Institute attempts to contact every abortion provider. The CDC relies on voluntary reporting of abortion data from the states and the District of Columbia. As of July 2022, the Guttmacher Institute had reported abortion data for the years 1973 through 2020 and the CDC had reported abortion data for the years 1970 through 2019.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Birth control in the United States</span> History of birth control in the United States

Birth control in the United States is available in many forms. Some of the forms available at drugstores and some retail stores are male condoms, female condoms, sponges, spermicides, and over-the-counter emergency contraception. Forms available at pharmacies with a doctor's prescription or at doctor's offices are oral contraceptive pills, patches, vaginal rings, diaphragms, shots/injections, cervical caps, implantable rods, and intrauterine devices (IUDs). Sterilization procedures, including tubal ligations and vasectomies, are also performed.

Reproductive coercion is a collection of behaviors that interfere with decision-making related to reproductive health. These behaviors are meant to maintain power and control related to reproductive health by a current, former, or hopeful intimate or romantic partner, but they can also be perpetrated by parents or in-laws. Coercive behaviors infringe on individuals' reproductive rights and reduce their reproductive autonomy.

Abortion is a controversial topic in Nigeria. Abortion in Nigeria is governed by two laws that differ depending on geographical location. Northern Nigeria is governed by The Penal Code and Southern Nigeria is governed by The Criminal Code. The only legal way to have an abortion in Nigeria is if having the child is going to put the mother's life in danger. However, sex-selective abortion has long had acceptance in Nigeria.

Teenage pregnancy is a girl between the ages of 13 and 19 becoming pregnant. The term used in every day speech usually refers to girls who have not yet reached legal adulthood, which in Australia is anyone under the age of 18. At the national level, the teenage birth rate has declined in the last decade. The rate was about 16 babies per 1,000 women aged 15–19 years between 2011 and 2012 but this had fallen to 11.9 births per 1,000 women aged 15–19 in 2015, the lowest figure on record. Terminations can be performed up until the 12-week mark. About half of all teenage pregnancies are terminated in Australia.

References

  1. 1 2 Cha, Ariana (April 28, 2016). "Teen birthrate hits all-time low, led by 50 percent decline among Hispanics and blacks". The Washington Post. Retrieved May 15, 2019.
  2. ↑ "An Analysis of Out-Of-Wedlock Births in the United States". The Brookings Institution. August 1, 1996. Retrieved March 8, 2016.
  3. 1 2 Patten, Eileen; Livingston, Gretchen (April 29, 2016). "Why is the teen birth rate falling?". Pew Research Center. Retrieved July 2, 2019.
  4. 1 2 Wildsmith, Elizabeth; Welti, Kate; Finocharo, Jane; Ryberg, Renee; Manlove, Jennifer (December 23, 2022). "Teen Births Have Declined by More Than Three Quarters Since 1991 - Child Trends". Child Trends. Retrieved January 15, 2023.
  5. 1 2 DeParle, Jason (December 31, 2022). "Their Mothers Were Teenagers. They Didn't Want That for Themselves". The New York Times. ISSN   0362-4331 . Retrieved January 15, 2023.
  6. ↑ Kekatos, Mary (June 1, 2023). "Teenage birth rates in the US reached historic lows in 2022, CDC report finds". ABC News. Retrieved December 7, 2023.
  7. ↑ "Too Much Netflix, Not Enough Chill: Why Young Americans Are Having Less Sex". Politico Magazine. February 8, 2018.
  8. ↑ Patten, Eileen; Livingston, Gretchen (April 29, 2016). "Why is the teen birth rate falling?". Pew Research Center. Retrieved July 2, 2019.
  9. 1 2 "About Teen Pregnancy | CDC". www.cdc.gov. November 15, 2021. Retrieved December 6, 2021.
  10. ↑ "ONDCP: Hispanic teens more likely than whites, blacks to use drugs". PsycEXTRA Dataset. 2007. doi:10.1037/e426482008-009 . Retrieved April 27, 2022.
  11. 1 2 3 4 Darroch, Jacqueline E.; Singh, Susheela; Frost, Jennifer J. (November–December 2001). "Differences in Teenage Pregnancy Rates Among Five Developed Countries: The Roles of Sexual Activity and Contraceptive Use". Perspectives on Sexual and Reproductive Health. 33 (6): 244–281.
  12. 1 2 3 4 "About Teen Pregnancy | Teen Pregnancy | Reproductive Health | CDC". www.cdc.gov. Retrieved April 20, 2016.
  13. ↑ Timothy W. Martin (2011). "Birth Rate Continues to Slide Among Teens". Wall Street Journal. Retrieved March 7, 2012.
  14. 1 2 3 "11 Facts About Teen Pregnancy | DoSomething.org | Volunteer for Social Change". www.dosomething.org. Retrieved April 20, 2016.
  15. 1 2 3 "The Office of Adolescent Health, U.S. Department of Health and Human Services". Office of Adolescent Health. Retrieved April 20, 2016.
  16. 1 2 "Policy Brief: Racial and Ethnic Disparities in Teen Pregnancy" (PDF). The National Campaign to Prevent Teen and Unplanned Pregnancy. July 2008. Archived from the original (PDF) on October 29, 2008. Retrieved October 13, 2008.
  17. ↑ Cha, Ariana (April 28, 2016). "Teen birthrate hits all-time low, led by 50 percent decline among Hispanics and blacks". The Washington Post. Retrieved May 15, 2019.
  18. ↑ Witt WP, Wiess AJ, Elixhauser A (December 2014). "Overview of Hospital Stays for Children in the United States, 2012". HCUP Statistical Brief #186. Rockville, MD: Agency for Healthcare Research and Quality. PMID   25695124.
  19. 1 2 3 4 5 6 "www.guttmacher.org" (PDF). Guttmacher Institute. June 2013. Retrieved August 14, 2013.
  20. ↑ Boonstra, Heather. "What Is Behind the Declines in Teen Pregnancy Rates?". Guttmacher Institute. Archived from the original on June 15, 2020. Retrieved April 20, 2017.
  21. ↑ Patten, Eileen; Livingston, Gretchen (April 29, 2016). "Why is the teen birth rate falling?". Pew Research Center. Retrieved July 2, 2019.
  22. 1 2 3 Furstenberg, Frank (November 1, 2016). "Reconsidering Teenage Pregnancy and Parenthood". Societies. 6 (4): 33. doi: 10.3390/soc6040033 .
  23. 1 2 3 "Statistics on Teenage Pregnancy" (PDF). Archived from the original (PDF) on April 18, 2021. Retrieved April 19, 2016.
  24. 1 2 3 "Unintended Pregnancy Prevention | Unintended Pregnancy | Reproductive Health | CDC". www.cdc.gov. Retrieved April 20, 2016.
  25. ↑ Burrus, Barri B. (February 1, 2018). "Decline in Adolescent Pregnancy in the United States: A Success Not Shared by All". American Journal of Public Health. 108 (S1): S5–S6. doi:10.2105/AJPH.2017.304273. ISSN   0090-0036. PMC   5813784 . PMID   29443563.
  26. ↑ Vazsonyi, Alexander T.; Chen, Pan; Young, Maureen; Jenkins, Dusty; Browder, Sara; Kahumoku, Emily; Pagava, Karaman; Phagava, Helen; Jeannin, Andre; Michaud, Pierre-Andre (December 1, 2008). "A Test of Jessor's Problem Behavior Theory in a Eurasian and a Western European Developmental Context". Journal of Adolescent Health. 43 (6): 555–564. doi:10.1016/j.jadohealth.2008.06.013. ISSN   1054-139X. PMID   19027643.
  27. ↑ Montgomery, Kristen S. (November 1, 2002). "Planned adolescent pregnancy: What they wanted". Journal of Pediatric Health Care. 16 (6): 282–289. doi:10.1067/mph.2002.122083. ISSN   0891-5245. PMID   12436097.
  28. ↑ Kost, Kathryn; Henshaw, Stanley (2014), U.S. Teenage Pregnancies, Births and Abortions, 2010:National and State Trends by Age, Race and Ethnicity (PDF), retrieved June 8, 2015
  29. 1 2 3 4 "Teenage Births: Outcomes for Young Parents and Their Children" (PDF). December 2008. Archived from the original (PDF) on August 10, 2021. Retrieved April 19, 2016.
  30. ↑ Chen, X.-K.; Wen, S. W.; Fleming, N.; Demissie, K.; Rhoads, G. G.; Walker, M. (April 1, 2007). "Teenage pregnancy and adverse birth outcomes: a large population based retrospective cohort study". International Journal of Epidemiology. 36 (2): 368–373. doi: 10.1093/ije/dyl284 . ISSN   0300-5771. PMID   17213208.
  31. ↑ Van Pelt, Jennifer (March–April 2012). "Keep Teen Mom's In School- A School Social Work". Social Work Today. Retrieved March 4, 2016.
  32. 1 2 3 Harris, Robie H.; Emberley, Michael (2014). It's Perfectly Normal: Changing Bodies, Growing Up, Sex, and Sexual Health (4th ed.). Somerville, Massachusetts: Candlewick Press. p. 47. ISBN   978-0-7636-6872-3.{{cite book}}: CS1 maint: date and year (link)
  33. ↑ Myers, Wendy S. "Babies Having Babies. (Cover Story)." Women In Business 42.4 (1990): 18-20. Academic Search Complete. Web. 25 Oct. 2016.
  34. ↑ Martinez, D. (February 7, 2009). "Teen Parenting Program aims to keep young mothers in school". Valley Morning Star. Archived from the original on December 3, 2021. Retrieved April 29, 2016. Saenz said the program, which follows a TEA curriculum, reaches out to girls and boys from middle school to high school who are facing a pregnancy to educate them about the parenting process, resources, federal programs and continuing their education.
  35. ↑ Sadler L. S., Swartz M. K., Ryan-Krause P., Seitz V., Meadows-Oliver M., Grey M., Clemmens D. A. (2007). "Promising Outcomes in Teen Mothers Enrolled in a School-Based Parent Support Program and Child Care Center". Journal of School Health. 77 (3): 121–130. doi:10.1111/j.1746-1561.2007.00181.x. PMID   17302854.{{cite journal}}: CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link)
  36. ↑ Stanger-Hall, Kathrin F.; Hall, David W. (October 14, 2011). "Abstinence-Only Education and Teen Pregnancy Rates: Why We Need Comprehensive Sex Education in the U.S". PLOS ONE. 6 (10): e24658. Bibcode:2011PLoSO...624658S. doi: 10.1371/journal.pone.0024658 . ISSN   1932-6203. PMC   3194801 . PMID   22022362.
  37. ↑ Trussell, James (Spring 2017). "Teenage Pregnancy in the United States". Family Planning Perspectives. 6 (6): 262–272. doi:10.2307/2135482. JSTOR   2135482.
  38. ↑ Santelli, John S.; Lindberg, Laura Duberstein; Finer, Lawrence B.; Singh, Susheela (January 2007). "Explaining Recent Declines in Adolescent Pregnancy in the United States: The Contribution of Abstinence and Improved Contraceptive Use". American Journal of Public Health. 97 (1): 150–156. doi:10.2105/AJPH.2006.089169. ISSN   0090-0036. PMC   1716232 . PMID   17138906.
  39. ↑ "Sex and HIV Education". March 14, 2016.
  40. ↑ Kearney, Melissa; Levine, Phillip (January 15, 2014). "Media Influences on Social Outcomes: The Impact of MTV's "16 and Pregnant" on Teen Childbearing". The Brookings Institution. Retrieved July 2, 2019.
  41. ↑ Aubrey, Jennifer Stevens; Behm-Morawitz, Elizabeth; Kim, Kyungbo (October 3, 2014). "Understanding the Effects of MTV's 16 and Pregnant on Adolescent Girls' Beliefs, Attitudes, and Behavioral Intentions Toward Teen Pregnancy". Journal of Health Communication. 19 (10): 1145–1160. doi:10.1080/10810730.2013.872721. ISSN   1081-0730. PMID   24628488. S2CID   12327917.

Further reading

This page is based on this Wikipedia article
Text is available under the CC BY-SA 4.0 license; additional terms may apply.
Images, videos and audio are available under their respective licenses.