Terrorism in the United Kingdom

Last updated

Terrorist incidents map of the United Kingdom 1970-2015, with a total of 4,972 incidents plotted. Northern Ireland and London are major hotspots for incidents. In 2017, there was a major attack in Manchester, following a concert by Ariana Grande Terrorist incidents map of the United Kingdom 1970-2015.svg
Terrorist incidents map of the United Kingdom 1970–2015, with a total of 4,972 incidents plotted. Northern Ireland and London are major hotspots for incidents. In 2017, there was a major attack in Manchester, following a concert by Ariana Grande

Terrorism in the United Kingdom, according to the Home Office, poses a significant threat to the state. [1] There have been various causes of terrorism in the UK. Before the 2000s, most attacks were linked to the Northern Ireland conflict (the Troubles). In the late 20th century there were also attacks by Islamic terrorist groups. Since 1970, there have been at least 3,395 terrorist-related deaths in the UK, the highest in western Europe. [2] The vast majority of the deaths were linked to the Northern Ireland conflict and happened in Northern Ireland. [2] In mainland Great Britain, there were 430 terrorist-related deaths between 1971 and 2001. Of these, 125 deaths were linked to the Northern Ireland conflict, [3] and 305 deaths were linked to other causes, [4] including 270 in the Lockerbie bombing. [4] Since 2001, there have been almost 100 terrorist-related deaths in Great Britain.

Contents

The UK’s CONTEST strategy aims to prevent terrorism and other forms of extremism. [5] It places a responsibility on education and health bodies to report individuals who are deemed to be at risk of radicalisation. [5] : 35  The 2023 CONTEST report indicated that 75 per cent of the Security Service (MI5)'s caseload was from monitoring Islamist threats. [6]

1,834 people were arrested in the UK from September 2001 to December 2009 in connection with terrorism, of which 422 were charged with terrorism-related offences and 237 were convicted. [7]

History

Terrorism deaths in Western Europe 1970-2017, based on the Global Terrorism Database. The UK is presented in red. Terrorism-in-Western-Europe.png
Terrorism deaths in Western Europe 1970-2017, based on the Global Terrorism Database. The UK is presented in red.
Terrorist incidents in United Kingdom [8] [9]
YearNumber of
incidents		DeathsInjuries
201712242301
2016104920
2015115123
201410304
2013137464
20125112
20114713
201057022
200922312
20083908
200720413
2006600
20052557836
2004502
200323211
200221213
200194833
200061728
1999767161
19986346259
1997782335
19963614395
199522115
199425666177
1993731204
199227494453
199126288235
199014776123
198916366174
1988181372263
1987118104120
1986956380
19856764175
198414569249
198317777186
19829595152
198114386118
1980135115115
1979238133146
197810081113
197714010317
197619426419
1975194245129
1974202235329
1973189210275
197228336837
1971811101
197012201
Total5,2183,4475,937

There have been many historically significant terrorist incidents within the United Kingdom, from the Gunpowder Plot of 1605 [10] [11] to the various attacks related to The Troubles of Northern Ireland. In recent history, the UK security services have focused on the threat posed by radical Islamic militant organisations within the UK, such as the cell responsible for the 7 July 2005 London bombings.

The British state has been accused of involvement in state terrorism in Northern Ireland. [12] [13] [14] [15]

A "restricted" 12 June 2008 MI5 analysis of "several hundred individuals known to be involved in, or closely associated with, violent extremist activity" concludes that British Islamist terrorists "are a diverse collection of individuals, fitting no single demographic profile, nor do they all follow a typical pathway to violent extremism". [16] Around half were born in the United Kingdom, the majority are British nationals and the remainder, with a few exceptions, are in the country legally. Most UK terrorists are male, but women are sometimes aware of their husbands', brothers' or sons' activities. While the majority are in their early to mid-20s when they become radicalised, a small but not insignificant minority first become involved in violent extremism over the age of 30. Those over 30 are just as likely to have a wife and children as to be loners with no ties. MI5 says this challenges the idea that terrorists are young Muslim men driven by sexual frustration and lured to "martyrdom" by the promise of beautiful virgins waiting for them in paradise. [16] Those involved in Islamist terrorism have educational achievement ranging from total lack of qualifications to degree-level education. However, they are almost all employed in low-grade jobs. [16] Far from being religious zealots, a large number of those involved in terrorism do not practise their faith regularly. Many lack religious literacy and could actually be regarded as religious novices. Very few have been brought up in strongly religious households, and there is a higher than average proportion of converts. Some are involved in drug-taking, drinking alcohol and visiting prostitutes. The report claims a well-established religious identity actually protects against violent radicalisation, while the influence of clerics in radicalising Islamist terrorists has reduced in recent years. [16]

On 29 August 2014, the British government launched a raft of counter-terrorism measures as the terrorist threat level was raised to "severe". Prime Minister David Cameron and Home Secretary Theresa May warned a terrorist attack was "highly likely", following the coming to prominence of the Islamic State of Iraq and the Levant (ISIL). [17]

On 22 May 2017, 23 people were killed after a bombing occurred following a concert by Ariana Grande in the most deadly terrorist attack on British soil since 2005. [18] After a COBRA meeting, UK Prime Minister Theresa May announced that the UK's terror threat level was being raised to 'critical', its highest level. [19] By raising the threat level to "critical", Operation Temperer was started, allowing 5,000 soldiers to replace armed police in protecting parts of the country. [20] [21] BBC's Frank Gardner said that the first deployment of troops is expected to be in the hundreds. [22]

There have been calls for the publication of a report into the finance of terrorism which the government said they left unpublished for security reasons. Tim Farron said, "Theresa May should be ashamed of the way she has dragged her heels on this issue, first as home secretary and now as prime minister. No amount of trade with dodgy regimes such as Saudi Arabia is worth putting the safety of the British public at risk, and if May is serious about our security, she would publish the report in full, immediately." [23]

From June 2016 to June 2017, 379 people in the UK had been arrested for terrorism-linked offences with 123 of them being charged, 105 of them for terrorism offences. This was a 68% increase from the previous year which was partly due to various Islamist terror attacks on UK soil such as the Manchester bombing, the London Bridge attack, and the Westminster attack. The report also said that 19 terrorist plots had been foiled by British police since June 2013. [24]

Jihadist material including bomb making instructions and execution videos gets more clicks in the UK than in any other European nation and is spread among a wide range of different domains. Internet companies have been accused of not preventing this. New measures are being considered to stop internet providers from showing this type of content including fines for internet companies that do not remove jihadist material. David Petraeus said the Parsons Green bomb could have been made from online instructions. Petraeus noted the technical and other skill of the terrorist websites and added, "It is clear that our counter-extremism efforts and other initiatives to combat extremism online have, until now, been inadequate. There is no doubting the urgency of this matter. The status quo clearly is unacceptable." [25]

Police chief, Sara Thornton fears cuts to the police budget will weaken counter terrorism. Thornton maintains resources needed to deal with terrorist incidents are brought from mainstream policing adding to the strain on general policing. Thornton maintains neighbourhood policing is important because it gives people confidence in the police. Then confident people give the police information needed to prevent terrorist attacks. Thornton said, "Fewer officers and police community support officers will cut off the intelligence that is so crucial to preventing attacks. Withdrawal from communities risks undermining their trust in us at a time when we need people to have the confidence to share information with us." Thornton also said, "Experts tell us that the spate of attacks in the UK and Europe are a shift not a spike in the threat, which will take 20 or 30 years to eliminate. This new normality necessitates an open-minded dialogue with government about how we respond; and our resources have got to be part of the conversation." [26] [27]

Organisations

Counter Terrorism Policing is the national collaboration of police forces across the United Kingdom responsible for counter terrorism operations and strategy.

The British government has designated 58 organisations as terrorist and banned them. 44 of these organisations were banned under the Terrorism Act of 2000. Two of these were also banned under the Terrorism Act of 2006 for "glorifying terrorism." Other than the far-right neo-Nazi National Action, the other fourteen organisations operate (for the most part) in Northern Ireland, and were banned under previous legislation. [1] As of 2019, the police have stated that the fastest growing terrorist threat in the UK is from the far right. [28]

Organisations the government has designated as terrorist and banned, of whom the vast majority are of radical Islamic ideology, are: [1]

Ulster unionist

Far-right

Far-left

Irish republican

Islamist

According to political scientist Gilles Kepel, the jihadi violence is rooted in Islamic fundamentalism in the form of Salafism, an ideology that clashes with the values of Western democracies and which entered the United Kingdom when the country gave shelter to radical Islamist leaders from around the world in London. [29] According to Kepel, an individual progresses into violence by first becoming a salafist. Further, he states that salafist ideology has led to attacking targets which symbolizes Western culture, such as the concerts at Manchester and in the Bataclan theater or deliberately timing attacks to interfere with democratic elections. [29] Scholar Olivier Roy disagrees, saying that the majority of Islamic terrorists are radicals first and are drawn to fundamentalist Islam as a result. [30] He has argued that there's no evidence that they go from Salafism to terrorism, noting that Islamic terrorist Abdelhamid Abaaoud was known to violate religious rules about halal food. [31] Roy has also argued that the burkini bans and secularist policies of France provoked religious violence in France, to which Kepel responded that Britain has no such policies and still suffered several jihadist attacks in 2017. [29]

In the 2000s, there was an increase in the number of British Pakistanis traveling to training camps in the Pashtun regions of Pakistan to join al-Qaeda and other jihadist groups. The British government received early warnings of this radicalization trend among British Muslims in March 2004, when security authorities foiled the "fertilizer bomb plot" orchestrated by a cell of jihadists of Pakistani origin. The most significant event illustrating this trend was the 7 July 2005 London bombings, a series of suicide bombings in the London Underground which resulted in fifty-two deaths and over seven hundred injuries. The perpetrators had been trained in an al-Qaeda camp on the Pakistani side of the Afghan–Pakistani border. [32]

In July 2017, it was reported that British authorities had stripped some 150 suspected criminals with dual citizenship of their British passport, to prevent them from returning to the UK. Those deprived of their UK citizenship included both "jihadis" and "jihadi brides". [33]

In October 2020, Islamist terrorism remained the greatest threat to the UK by volume according to Ken McCallum, the Director General of MI5. [34] A report published in the same year found that of the 43,000 extremists on MI5's watchlist, around nine-tenths of the people on the list are Islamist extremists. [35] In July 2023, Suella Braverman, the Home Secretary of the United Kingdom, reiterated that Islamic terrorism was the primary domestic threat facing the UK. [36] Islamic terrorism represented 67% of attacks since 2018, 75% of MI5's caseload, and 64% of those in custody for terrorism-connected offences according to the 2023 CONTEST report. [6] The Independent Reviewer for the government's anti-terror programme, Sir William Shawcross, has stated that there was a reluctance to investigate Islamist threats due to fears of being labelled Islamophobic or racist. Instead, staff from the government's anti-terror programme were biased towards tackling far-right threats despite Islamist threats posing a greater risk. [37]

Others

See also

Related Research Articles

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Al-Qaeda</span> Pan-Islamic Sunni Jihadist terrorist organization (established 1988)

Al-Qaeda is a pan-Islamist militant organization led by Sunni Jihadists who self-identify as a vanguard spearheading a global Islamist revolution to unite the Muslim world under a supra-national Islamic caliphate. Its membership is mostly composed of Arabs, but also includes people from other ethnic groups. Al-Qaeda has mounted attacks on civilian, economic and military targets of the US and its allies; such as the 1998 US embassy bombings, the USS Cole bombing and the September 11 attacks. The organization is designated as a terrorist group by NATO, the UN Security Council, the European Union, and various countries around the world.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Terrorism Act 2000</span> United Kingdom legislation

The Terrorism Act 2000 is the first of a number of general Terrorism Acts passed by the Parliament of the United Kingdom. It superseded and repealed the Prevention of Terrorism Act 1989 and the Northern Ireland Act 1996. It also replaced parts of the Criminal Justice Act 1998. The powers it provides the police have been controversial, leading to noted cases of alleged abuse, and to legal challenges in British and European courts. The stop-and-search powers under section 44 of the Act have been ruled illegal by the European Court of Human Rights.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Ansar al-Islam in Kurdistan</span> Salafi jihadist militant group in Iraq and Syria

Ansar al-Islam in Kurdistan, simply called Ansar al-Islam, is a Kurdish Islamist militant and separatist group. It was established in northern Iraq around the Kurdistan Region by Kurdish Islamists who were former Taliban and former Al-Qaeda volunteers, which were coming back from Afghanistan in 2001 after the Fall of Kabul. Its motive is to establish an Islamic state around the Kurdistan region and to protect Kurdish people from other armed insurgent groups. It imposed strict Sharia in villages it controlled around Byara near the Iranian border.

Islamic terrorism refers to terrorist acts with religious motivations carried out by fundamentalist militant Islamists and Islamic extremists.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Harkat-ul-Jihad al-Islami</span> Pakistani Islamist militant organization

Harkat-ul-Jihad-al-Islami is a Pakistani Islamist extremist, fundamentalist and terrorist organisation affiliated with Al-Qaeda and the Taliban.

Counter Terrorism Command (CTC) or SO15 is a Specialist Operations branch within London's Metropolitan Police Service. The Counter Terrorism Command was established as a result of the merging of the Anti-Terrorist Branch (SO13) and Special Branch (SO12) in October 2006, bringing together intelligence, operations, and investigative functions to form a single command. CTC has over 1,500 police officers and staff, and a number of investigators based overseas and also hosts the Counter Terrorism Policing headquarters.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Jihadism</span> Islamist movements for jihad

Jihadism is a neologism for militant Islamic movements that are perceived as existentially threatening to the West. It is a form of religious violence and has been applied to various insurgent Islamic extremist, militant Islamist, and terrorist individuals and organizations whose ideologies are based on the Islamic notion of lesser jihad from the classical interpretation of Islam. It has also been applied to various Islamic empires in history, such as the Rashidun and Umayyad caliphates of the early Muslim conquests, and the Ottoman Empire, who extensively campaigned against non-Muslim nations in the name of jihad.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Islamic extremism</span> Extreme or radical form of Islam

Islamic extremism, Islamist extremism or radical Islam refers a set of extremist beliefs, behaviors and ideology within Islam. These terms remain contentious, encompassing a spectrum of definitions, ranging from academic interpretations to the notion that all ideologies other than Islam have failed and are inferior. Furthermore, these terms may extend to encompass other sects of Islam that do not share such extremist views.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">UK Threat Levels</span> Alert states used by the British Government

The United Kingdom Terror Threat Levels, often referred to as UK Threat Levels, are the alert states that have been in use since 1 August 2006 by the British government to warn of forms of terrorist activity. In September 2010 the threat levels for Northern Ireland-related terrorism were also made available. In July 2019 changes were made to the terrorism threat level system, to reflect the threat posed by all forms of terrorism, irrespective of ideology. There is now a single national threat level describing the threat to the UK, which includes Islamist, Northern Ireland, left-wing and right-wing terrorism. Before 2006, a colour-based alert scheme known as BIKINI state was used. The response indicates how government departments and agencies and their staffs should react to each threat level.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Al-Qaeda activities in Europe</span>

The international activities of Al-Qaeda includes involvements in Europe, where members of the group have been involved in militant and terrorist activities in several countries. Al-Qaeda has been responsible for or involved in attacks in Western Europe and Russia, including the 2004 Madrid train bombings, 2010 Moscow Metro bombings, 2011 Domodedovo International Airport bombing, and the January 2015 Île-de-France attacks.

CONTEST is the United Kingdom's counter-terrorism strategy, first developed by Sir David Omand and the Home Office in early 2003 as the immediate response to 9/11, and a revised version was made public in 2006. Further revisions were published on 24 March 2009, 11 July 2011 and June 2018. An Annual Report on the implementation of CONTEST was released in March 2010 and in April 2014. The aim of the strategy is "to reduce the risk to the UK and its interests overseas from terrorism so that people can go about their lives freely and with confidence." The success of this strategy is not linked to total elimination of the terrorist threat, but to reducing the threat sufficiently to allow the citizens a normal life free from fear.

Jihadi tourism, also referred to as jihad tourism or jihadist tourism, is a term sometimes used to describe travel to foreign destinations with the object of scouting for terrorist training. US diplomatic cables leaked in 2010 have raised concerns about this form of travel. Within intelligence circles, the term is also sometimes applied dismissively to travellers who are assumed to be seeking contact with extremist groups mainly out of curiosity.

Islamic extremism in the United States comprises all forms of Islamic extremism occurring within the United States. Islamic extremism is an adherence to fundamentalist interpretations of Islam, potentially including the promotion of violence to achieve political goals. In the aftermath of the September 11, 2001 terror attacks, Islamic extremism became a prioritized national security concern of the U.S. government and a focus of many subsidiary security and law enforcement entities. Initially, the focus of concern was on foreign Islamic terrorist organizations, particularly al-Qaeda, but in the course of the years since the September 11 terror attacks, the focus has shifted more towards Islamic extremist radicalized individuals and jihadist networks within the United States.

The following outline is provided as an overview of and topical guide to the past and present terrorism in the United States:

Al-Mourabitoun was an African militant jihadist organization formed by a merger between Ahmed Ould Amer, a.k.a. Ahmed al-Tilemsi's Movement for Oneness and Jihad in West Africa and Mokhtar Belmokhtar's Al-Mulathameen. On 4 December 2015, it joined Al-Qaeda in the Islamic Maghreb (AQIM). The group sought to implement Sharia law in Mali, Algeria, southwestern Libya, and Niger.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Terrorism in Europe</span> Overview of terrorism in Europe

There is a long history of terrorism in Europe. This has often been linked to nationalist and separatist movements, while other acts have been related to politics, religious extremism, or organized crime. Terrorism in the European sections of the intercontinental countries of Turkey and Russia are not included in this list.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Islamic terrorism in Europe</span> Islamic terrorist attacks and plots in Europe

Islamic terrorism in Europe has been carried out by the Islamic State (ISIL) or Al-Qaeda as well as Islamist lone wolves since the late 20th century. Europol, which releases the annual EU Terrorism Situation and Trend report (TE-SAT), used the term "Islamist terrorism" in the years 2006–2010, "religiously inspired terrorism" 2011–2014, and has used "jihadist terrorism" since 2015. Europol defines jihadism as "a violent ideology exploiting traditional Islamic concepts".

<span class="mw-page-title-main">2017 Westminster attack</span> Terrorist attack in London

On 22 March 2017, a terrorist attack took place outside the Palace of Westminster in London, seat of the British Parliament. Khalid Masood, a 52-year-old Briton, drove a car into pedestrians on the pavement along the south side of Westminster Bridge and Bridge Street, injuring more than 50 people, four of them fatally. He then crashed the car into the perimeter fence of the palace grounds and ran into New Palace Yard, where he fatally stabbed an unarmed police officer. He was then shot by an armed police officer, and died at the scene.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Parsons Green train bombing</span> 2017 terrorism-related explosion in England

On 15 September 2017, at around 08:20 BST, an explosion occurred on a District line train at Parsons Green Underground station, in London, England. Thirty people were treated in hospital or an urgent care centre, mostly for burn injuries, by a botched, crude "bucket bomb" with a timer containing the explosive chemical TATP. Police arrested the main suspect, 18-year-old Iraqi asylum seeker Ahmed Hassan, in a departure area of the Port of Dover the next day, and subsequently raided several addresses, including the foster home of an elderly couple in Sunbury-on-Thames where Hassan lived following his arrival in the United Kingdom two years earlier claiming to be an asylum seeker.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Ansar Ghazwat-ul-Hind</span> Al-Qaeda-affiliated Islamist militant group in Kashmir

Ansar Ghazwat-ul-Hind is an Al-Qaeda-affiliated Islamist militant group active in Kashmir. The group's stated objective is to create Kashmir as an independent Islamic state under Sharia law and jihad against India.

References

  1. 1 2 3 "List of proscribed terrorist groups" (PDF). Gov.uk. Retrieved 2018-03-22.
  2. 1 2 "How many people are killed by terrorist attacks in the UK?"". The Telegraph . 5 June 2017.
  3. ↑ "Sutton Index of Deaths: Geographical Location of the death". Conflict Archive on the Internet . Retrieved 5 June 2017.
  4. 1 2 Douglas, Roger. Law, Liberty, and the Pursuit of Terrorism. University of Michigan Press, 2014. p.18
  5. 1 2 CONTEST The United Kingdom's Strategy for Countering Terrorism (PDF). HM Government. 2018. ISBN   978-1-5286-0209-9.
  6. 1 2 "CONTEST: The United Kingdom's Strategy for Countering Terrorism 2023" (PDF). gov.uk. Home Office . Retrieved 18 July 2023.
  7. ↑ Alan Travis. "No terror arrests in 100,000 police counter-terror searches, figures show". The Guardian . Retrieved 2016-01-28.
  8. ↑ National Consortium for the Study of Terrorism and Responses to Terrorism. (2016). Global Terrorism Database (globalterrorismdb_0616dist.xlsx). Retrieved from https://www.start.umd.edu/gtd University of Maryland
  9. ↑ National Consortium for the Study of Terrorism and Responses to Terrorism. (2016). Global Terrorism Database (gtd1993_0616dist.xlsx). Retrieved from https://www.start.umd.edu/gtd University of Maryland
  10. ↑ Larabee, Ann (1 May 2021). "Unspeakable: Literature and Terrorism from the Gunpowder Plot to 9/11 . Peter C. Herman. New York: Routledge, 2020. Pp. viii+211". Modern Philology. 118 (4): E230–E232. doi: 10.1086/712496 .
  11. ↑ Hamourtziadou; Jackson (2018). "5/11: Revisiting the Gunpowder Plot". Journal of Global Faultlines. 5 (1–2): 91. doi:10.13169/jglobfaul.5.1-2.0091.
  12. ↑ "CAIN: Issues: Collusion - Chronology of Events in the Stevens Inquiries". Cain.ulst.ac.uk. Retrieved 2016-01-28.
  13. ↑ Dr Martin Melaugh. "CAIN: Issues: Violence: Stevens Enquiry (3) Overview and Recommendations, 17 April 2003". Cain.ulst.ac.uk. Retrieved 2016-01-28.
  14. ↑ "Report of the Independent International Panel on Alleged Collusion in Sectarian Killings in Northern Ireland" (PDF). Patfinucanecentre.org. Archived from the original (PDF) on 2011-06-10. Retrieved 2016-01-28.
  15. ↑ "Village - Politics, Media and Current Affairs in Ireland - 'I'm lucky to be above the ground'". 2006-11-16. Archived from the original on 2007-11-20. Retrieved 2016-01-28.
  16. 1 2 3 4 Travis, Alan (2008-08-21). "MI5 report challenges views on terrorism in Britain Exclusive: Sophisticated analysis says there is no single pathway to violent extremism". The Guardian . London. Retrieved 2008-08-23.
  17. ↑ Coates, Sam; Hamilton, Fiona (30 August 2014). "Security crackdown amid severe terror threat" . The Times. Retrieved 23 May 2017.
  18. ↑ Dodd, Vikram; Pidd, Helen; Rawlinson, Kevin; Siddique, Haroon; MacAskill, Ewen (23 May 2017). "At least 22 killed, 59 injured in suicide attack at Manchester Arena". The Guardian. Retrieved 23 May 2017.
  19. ↑ "Latest updates as UK terror threat level raise". BBC News. Retrieved 23 May 2017.
  20. ↑ "PM Theresa May raises UK threat level to 'critical'". ITV News. 23 May 2017. Retrieved 23 May 2017. Raising the level to critical means that military personnel could be deployed to support armed police officers - part of a plan known as Operation Temperer.
  21. ↑ Alan Travis [@alantravis40] (May 23, 2017). "PM says Critical Threat level's Operation Temperer will use up to 5,000 troops to take over armed police patrol duties under police command" (Tweet). Retweeted by The Guardian – via Twitter.
  22. ↑ Gardner, Frank (23 May 2017). "Threat level raised: Latest updates". BBC News. Retrieved 23 May 2017.
  23. ↑ 9/11 survivors urge May to publish UK terror funding report The Guardian
  24. ↑ Travis, Alan (14 September 2017). "UK terror arrests rise 68% to record level during year of attacks". the Guardian. Retrieved 19 July 2018.
  25. ↑ Britain has large audience for online jihadist propaganda, report says The Guardian
  26. ↑ UK's terror fight 'puts unsustainable strain on police' BBC
  27. ↑ Don't cut police anti-terror budget as threat grows, warns top officer The Guardian
  28. ↑ Fastest Growing Terrorist Threat is from the Far Right say Police The Guardian
  29. 1 2 3 Lerner, Davide (2017-06-14). "London Gave Shelter to Radical Islam and Now It's Paying the Price, French Terrorism Expert Says". Haaretz. Retrieved 2018-06-09.
  30. ↑ Lerner, Davide (2017-08-20). "It's Not Islam That Drives Young Europeans to Jihad, France's Top Terrorism Expert Explains". Haaretz. Retrieved 2018-06-10.
  31. ↑ "'That Ignoramus': 2 French Scholars of Radical Islam Turn Bitter Rivals" . Retrieved 2018-07-19. 'There is no proof that shows the young men go from Salafism to terrorism,' Mr. Roy said, pointing out that the planner of the Paris attacks in November, Abdelhamid Abaaoud, ate McDonald's, which is not halal. 'None of the terrorists were Salafists.'
  32. ↑ Steinberg, Guido (2013). "Unlikely Internationalists: Putting German Jihadism into Perspective". German Jihad: On the Internationalization of Islamist Terrorism. Columbia studies in terrorism and irregular warfare. New York, NY: Columbia University Press. pp. 27–28. ISBN   978-0-231-50053-1.
  33. ↑ "UK 'has stripped 150 jihadists and criminals of citizenship'". the Guardian. Press Association. 2017-07-30. Retrieved 2018-02-23.
  34. ↑ "Director General Ken McCallum makes first public address | MI5 – The Security Service". www.mi5.gov.uk. Retrieved 2020-10-18.
  35. ↑ Mendick, Robert (23 June 2020). "Stabbing suspect was assessed by anti-terror programme". The Telegraph.
  36. ↑ "UK terrorism risk is rising - Suella Braverman". BBC News. 18 July 2023.
  37. ↑ Hymas, Charles (21 February 2024). "Islamist extremism 'not being effectively tackled by Government'". The Telegraph. Retrieved 22 February 2024.

Further reading

This page is based on this Wikipedia article
Text is available under the CC BY-SA 4.0 license; additional terms may apply.
Images, videos and audio are available under their respective licenses.