Tetraspora

Last updated

Contents

Tetraspora
Tetraspora gelatinosa illustration.jpg
Illustration of Tetraspora gelatinosa
Scientific classification OOjs UI icon edit-ltr.svg
(unranked): Viridiplantae
Division: Chlorophyta
Class: Chlorophyceae
Order: Chlamydomonadales
Family: Tetrasporaceae
Genus: Tetraspora
Link ex Desv. [1]
Species

Tetraspora is a genus of green algae in the family Tetrasporaceae of the order Chlamydomonadales, division Chlorophyta. [1] Species of Tetraspora are unicellular green algae that exist in arrangements of four and consist of cells being packaged together in a gelatinous envelope that creates macroscopic colonies. [2] These are primarily freshwater organisms, although there have been few cases where they have been found inhabiting marine environments and even contaminated water bodies. Tetraspora species can be found all around the globe, except in Antarctica. [3] Despite the ubiquitous presence, the greatest growth of the genera's species is seen in the polar climatic zones. [3]

Tetraspora species are non-motile [2] and instead of having flagella, they possess pairs of pseudoflagella which are part of the pseudociliary apparatus. [4] On average the cell diameter of Tetraspora ranges from 6-13 μm. [3] Energy is accumulated via photosynthesis through two cup-shaped chloroplasts, making the species primary producers. [5] Blooms have been noted in contaminated environments due to excess augmentation of ammonia from industrial waste and are now being associated with the drop in biodiversity in such water bodies. [6]

Both sexual and asexual reproduction are possible for species within this genus. In addition, mitosis is well-defined in Tetraspora species; particularly investigated in T. gelatinosa. Cell division involves the elaborate arrangement of microtubules, basal body complexes and involve the use of structures like phycoplasts and protoplast. [3]

Studies have shown the antimicrobial properties of certain species. In addition, Tetraspora is an important photobiological hydrogen producer and therefore is intensively being looked at for biofuel purposes. [7] As of 2019, thirty species have been classified into this genus.

Etymology

The genus name Tetraspora is derived from the word tetrad; which refers to the confirmation of four. [8] Tetra is Greek for four and spora is Latin for cells, thus describing species of this genus as existing in groups of four.

History

The genus Tetraspora was first described by Link ex Desvaux in the year 1818, where the purpose for the genus was to organize algae with spores arranged in confirmations of tetrads. [9] [3] [10] In the very first classifications, species of Tetraspora were classified into the order Tetrasporales under Chlorophyta. [3] However, with molecular analysis, it was found that Tetraspora species had similar basal body morphology to Chlamydomonas [11] and also had molecular similarity in the SSU rDNA. [12] This changed the classification from being under the order Tetrasporales to order Chlamydomonadales [1] (or Volvocales [3] ), where they still reside today.

Habitat

Tetraspora species are primarily freshwater organisms which inhabit ecosystems like streams, lakes, rivers, ponds. [3] They can be found in harsh environments like thermal effluents and industrial waste. [13] However, just recently it has been found that Tetraspora species have the ability to adapt and reside in marine environments that are exceptionally nutrient rich and receive freshwater river outflows. [6] Species have been found in both stagnant and free flowing water bodies, although morphology of species between the two water types slightly differs. [3] Physio-chemical studies of the habitats have shown that Tetraspora species tolerate wide pH ranges: (4.5-9.63) but are most commonly found in water bodies with a pH between 6–7. [3] Likewise, the optimal growth conditions for species of the genus Tetraspora are alkaline, low mesotrophic [3] and shallow bodies of freshwater. [2] Interestingly, species have also shown to be most abundant and well established on the beds of slow-flowing streams and rivers; where they generally take on the form of thin filamentous macroscopic colonies. [14]

Tetraspora species are found on every continent, with the exception of Antarctica, and can be located at all latitudes. [3] Therefore, they are found in all climatic zones: [3] polar, tropics, warm and cool temperate zones and the equatorial zones. While they can be present in all climatic zones, the most optimal zones are cool temperate and the polar zones. [3] This is because of the species preferring cold water to warm. [2]

Ecology

Like most other green algae, Tetraspora also is photoautotrophic. Their ability to conduct photosynthesis, establishes them at the starting point of aquatic food chains and food webs. Tetraspora function as primary producers [5] and hence are responsible for capturing and assimilating the energy that will be passed down subsequent trophic levels.

In water bodies associated with sewage waste, industrial waste and fishery waste, Tetraspora blooms have been documented. [6] Spewing of sewage, industrial and fishery wastes leads to anthropogenic eutrophication, [6] [15] where there is excess augmentation of ammonia; a principal nitrogen source for certain species of Tetraspora. The excess nitrogen is proposed to contribute to uncontrolled cell proliferation of Tetraspora colonies; [6] resulting in algal blooms. Tetraspora blooms have negative effects on the overall environmental ecology because they shift and alter the chemical properties of the water. This is because with the mass growth, hypoxia and/or anoxia [6] can occur and these may have detrimental effects on biodiversity and survivability of other organisms such as fish. [16]

Morphology

Species of the genus Tetraspora are unicellular green algae, in which the individual cells are non-motile and are shaped spherically or elliptically. [2] These individual cells are arranged in sets or multiples of four; these could be in the arrangement of four-by-four cells or two-by-two. [2] All cells are encased within a macroscopic mucilaginous matrix, [2] [11] that creates macroscopic colonies. [2] Within the envelope, the cells are uniformly distributed and overall, the mucilaginous envelope creates an irregular outline with asymmetrical shapes and edges. [2]

The size of cells has been found to vary based on the type of Tetraspora species and the type of climatic zone the species is found in. On average the diameter of species in the genus Tetraspora ranges from 6-13 μm, with the species in the tropics usually being the smallest (6-9 μm), followed by the temperate zone species (6-14 μm), and the polar species (7.5-13 μm). [3] The difference in cell size therefore also impacts sizes of the colonies, but sizes of colonies also vary with whether the cells are residing in stagnant or flowing water. In stagnant water, colonies may range from 5–10 cm in length, while in flowing water, colonies may reach lengths up to 50 cm. [3] In addition to impacting colony size, the type of water (stagnant or free flowing) also impacts the morphology of the colonies. Most macroscopic colonies of Tetraspora are cylindrical in nature, but in stagnant water colonies may appear as short sacs and clubs with thalli that resemble balloons. [3] Flowing water colonies on the other hand, tend to form narrow cylindrical structures with the thalli also being more or less cylindrical and sometimes can be lightly rounded at the sheaths. [3]

Cellular structures/anatomy

Species in the genus Tetraspora contain two pseduoflagella as a part of the pseudociliary apparatus, two cup-shaped chloroplasts with chlorophyll A and B pigments, a single pyrenoid and contractile vacuoles located inside the cytoplasm. [2] Additionally, starch grains can be seen covering the pyrenoid [2] and the walls of the cells are noted to be thin.

Tetraspora species do not possess a flagellum of the 9+2 microtubular fibre configuration, instead they have pseudoflagellum with a 9+0 fibre confirmation; where the central two tubular fibres are absent. [4] There are two pseduoflagelulla that exist in a pair and both protrude from the anterior region of the cell and into the gelatinous matrix. [10] Additionally, it has been found that the pseudoflagella are longer than the actual cells. [10] The pseudoflagella is part of the pseudociliary apparatus, which consists of a cytoplasmic microtubule system, striated fibre system, basal bodies, and the pseudoflagella themselves. [11] Pseudoflagella each display a striped pattern, where they are seen to regularly have striped structures of light and dark sections of equal length. [3] On average, the length of pseudoflagella is from 70 to 120 μm long and 0.70-1.60 μm wide, but they can get up to 155 μm in length. [3]

Life cycle

Reproduction in the genus Tetraspora can be both sexual and asexual. Sexual reproduction occurs through isogamous means, but occasionally depending on the species, it can also be isogamous or oogamous. [17] Asexual division in Tetraspora occurs via mitotic division; the products can be two or four uninucleate daughter cells. [17] In addition to vegetative cells, asexual reproduction can also produce zoospores, which may act as autospores ranging from two to eight per cell. [17]

When living conditions become less favourable, many species of the genus Tetraspora also have the ability to form into hypanospores called akineties. [3] Akineties are thick-walled spores that are brown in colour with a diameter of 12.9-15.80 μm and a cell wall thickness of 0.6-1.10 μm. [3] They function as resting cells which are resistant to cold temperatures and desiccation. [3] The process of division of mature akineties is done by amoeboid protoplasts located inside the mucilaginous envelopes. [3]

Cell division in Tetraspora species has been described. It is noted that prior to mitosis beginning, cells become immotile and the basal bodies located at the surface of cells start to retreat in. [18] This causes the preprophase nucleus to migrate toward retreating basal body complex, around which microtubules start to gather. [18] The basal body complex arranges itself to be closely associated with one pole of the cell, creating a mitotic spindle known as open polar fenestrae. [18] Furthermore, it is speculated that the spindle itself may also be unicentric. [18] Eventually, microtubules extend from the spindle, and during anaphase, they penetrate through the fenestrae and split the nucleus. [18] Subsequently, to telophase, the nucleus reforms, but a phycoplast forms. [18] In addition, a protoplast is found inside the cell wall and is noted to rotate within the wall during cleavage; a process known to occur by the cell undergoing furrowing. [18]

Practical importance

Phytotoxic and cytotoxic activity analysis of some Tetraspora species displayed antibiotic activities against specific fungal and bacterial species, [13] meaning that Tetraspora species may help develop or compose antibiotics. In addition, species of Tetraspora are known to be high hydrogen producing organisms. [7] This is significant because hydrogen gas is considered a promising clean fuel. This means that Tetraspora species may potentially act as photobiological hydrogen producers and green biofuels.

Related Research Articles

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Algal bloom</span> Spread of planktonic algae in water

An algal bloom or algae bloom is a rapid increase or accumulation in the population of algae in freshwater or marine water systems. It is often recognized by the discoloration in the water from the algae's pigments. The term algae encompasses many types of aquatic photosynthetic organisms, both macroscopic multicellular organisms like seaweed and microscopic unicellular organisms like cyanobacteria. Algal bloom commonly refers to the rapid growth of microscopic unicellular algae, not macroscopic algae. An example of a macroscopic algal bloom is a kelp forest.

<i>Chlamydomonas</i> Genus of algae

Chlamydomonas is a genus of green algae consisting of about 150 species of unicellular flagellates, found in stagnant water and on damp soil, in freshwater, seawater, and even in snow as "snow algae". Chlamydomonas is used as a model organism for molecular biology, especially studies of flagellar motility and chloroplast dynamics, biogenesis, and genetics. One of the many striking features of Chlamydomonas is that it contains ion channels (channelrhodopsins) that are directly activated by light. Some regulatory systems of Chlamydomonas are more complex than their homologs in Gymnosperms, with evolutionarily related regulatory proteins being larger and containing additional domains.

<i>Stentor</i> (ciliate) Genus of single-celled organisms

Stentor, sometimes called trumpet animalcules, are a genus of filter-feeding, heterotrophic ciliates, representative of the heterotrichs. They are usually horn-shaped, and reach lengths of two millimeters; as such, they are among the largest known extant unicellular organisms. They reproduce asexually through binary fission.

<i>Aphanizomenon</i> Genus of bacteria

Aphanizomenon is a genus of cyanobacteria that inhabits freshwater lakes and can cause dense blooms. They are unicellular organisms that consolidate into linear (non-branching) chains called trichomes. Parallel trichomes can then further unite into aggregates called rafts. Cyanobacteria such as Aphanizomenon are known for using photosynthesis to create energy and therefore use sunlight as their energy source. Aphanizomenon bacteria also play a big role in the Nitrogen cycle since they can perform nitrogen fixation. Studies on the species Aphanizomenon flos-aquae have shown that it can regulate buoyancy through light-induced changes in turgor pressure. It is also able to move by means of gliding, though the specific mechanism by which this is possible is not yet known.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Selenastraceae</span> Family of algae

Selenastraceae is a family of green algae in the order Sphaeropleales. Members of this family are common components of the phytoplankton in freshwater habitats worldwide. A few species have been found in brackish and marine habitats, such as in the Baltic Sea.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Tetrasporaceae</span> Family of algae

The Tetrasporaceae are a family of green algae, specifically of the Chlamydomonadales. They are found in freshwater habitats.

<i>Botryococcus</i> Genus of algae

Botryococcus is a genus of green algae. The cells form an irregularly shaped aggregate. Thin filaments connect the cells. The cell body is ovoid, 6 to 10 μm long, and 3 to 6 μm wide. Fossils of the genus are known since Precambrian times, and form the single largest biological contributor to crude oil, and are a major component of oil shales.

<i>Paulschulzia</i> Genus of algae

Paulschulzia is a genus of green algae, specifically of the family Tetrasporaceae.

<i>Trebouxia</i> Genus of algae

Trebouxia is a unicellular green alga. It is a photosynthetic organism that can exist in almost all habitats found in polar, tropical, and temperate regions. It can either exist in a symbiotic relationship with fungi in the form of lichen or it can survive independently as a free-living organism alone or in colonies. Trebouxia is the most common photobiont in extant lichens. It is a primary producer of marine, freshwater and terrestrial ecosystems. It uses carotenoids and chlorophyll a and b to harvest energy from the sun and provide nutrients to various animals and insects.

<i>Tetrastrum</i> Genus of algae

Tetrastrum is a genus of green algae (Chlorophyta). It is a common component of the phytoplankton of freshwater habitats, particularly eutrophic and alkaline waters.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Harmful algal bloom</span> Population explosion of organisms that can kill marine life

A harmful algal bloom (HAB), or excessive algae growth, is an algal bloom that causes negative impacts to other organisms by production of natural algae-produced toxins, mechanical damage to other organisms, or by other means. HABs are sometimes defined as only those algal blooms that produce toxins, and sometimes as any algal bloom that can result in severely lower oxygen levels in natural waters, killing organisms in marine or fresh waters. Blooms can last from a few days to many months. After the bloom dies, the microbes that decompose the dead algae use up more of the oxygen, generating a "dead zone" which can cause fish die-offs. When these zones cover a large area for an extended period of time, neither fish nor plants are able to survive. Harmful algal blooms in marine environments are often called "red tides".

<i>Karenia</i> (dinoflagellate) Genus of single-celled organisms

Karenia is a genus that consists of unicellular, photosynthetic, planktonic organisms found in marine environments. The genus currently consists of 12 described species. They are best known for their dense toxic algal blooms and red tides that cause considerable ecological and economical damage; some Karenia species cause severe animal mortality. One species, Karenia brevis, is known to cause respiratory distress and neurotoxic shellfish poisoning (NSP) in humans.

<i>Chrysochromulina</i> Genus of single-celled organisms

Chrysochromulina is a genus of haptophytes. This phytoplankton is distributed globally in brackish and marine waters across approximately 60 known species. All Chrysochromulina species are phototrophic, however some have been shown to be mixotrophic, including exhibiting phagotrophy under certain environmental conditions. The cells are small, characterized by having scales, and typically observed using electron microscopy. Some species, under certain environmental conditions have been shown to produce toxic compounds that are harmful to larger marine life including fish.

<i>Dinobryon</i> Genus of algae

Dinobryon is a type of microscopic algae. It is one of the 22 genera in the family Dinobryaceae. Dinobryon are mixotrophs, capable of obtaining energy and carbon through photosynthesis and phagotrophy of bacteria. The genus comprises at least 37 described species. The best-known species are D. cylindricum and D. divergens, which come to the attention of humans annually due to transient blooms in the photic zone of temperate lakes and ponds. Such blooms may produce volatile organic compounds (VOCs) that produce odors and affect water quality.

<i>Vampyrella</i> Genus of single-celled organisms

Vampyrella is a genus of amoebae belonging to the vampyrellid cercozoans usually ranging from 30-60 µm. Members of the genus alternate between two life stages: a free-living trophozoite stage and a cyst stage in which mitosis occurs. This taxon has received a great deal of attention due to their peculiar feeding behaviour of perforating the cell wall of algal cells and drawing out the contents for nourishment.

Cryptoglena(/ˌkɹɪptoʊˈgliːnə/) is a genus of photosynthetic euglenids that was first described in 1831 by Christian Gottfried Ehrenberg. Today, its circumscription is controversial: Bicudo and Menezes consider twenty-one species as Cryptoglena, of which, nine are uncertain. Cryptoglena species are water-based, living in both freshwater and marine environments. They are biflagellated, with one internal flagellum and one external flagellum, which allows movement through environments as demonstrated by Kim and Shin in the species C. pigra. The cells of Cryptoglena resemble a coffee bean, as they have a groove that runs the length of the cell on one side and makes them U-shaped in cross section. They are ovoid in shape and are small, with the larger cells being on average 25 x 15 μm. After being first described in 1831, little work was done on the genus until the late 1970s and early 1980s, after the scanning electron microscope completed development and was implemented into laboratories. Work then proceeded with the developments of molecular biology, which allows for classifications based on DNA sequences. For Cryptoglena the main DNA used for classification are small subunit (SSU) and large subunit (LSU) rDNA.

<i>Orciraptor</i> Genus of predatorial protists

Orciraptor is a genus of heterotrophic protists, containing the single species Orciraptor agilis. It belongs to the family Viridiraptoridae, in the phylum Cercozoa.

<i>Aphelidium tribonemae</i> Species of eukaryote

Aphelidium tribonemae is a species within the Aphelid group. Their classification in the kingdom Fungi is a subject of controversy. Some argue for the classification of aphelids as ‘fungal animals', and for a period of time in the 1950s, aphids were classified as protists due to their amoeboid stage. Recently, molecular phylogenetics placed the aphelids within Opisthosporidia, a super phylum within Opisthokonta. Aphelids have posterior uniflagellate zoospores which place them as Opisthokonts. They are an early diverging lineage in Kingdom Fungi. While the aphelid group only contains three genera, it spans many both freshwater and marine ecosystems.

Chlorangiella is a genus of microscopic algae, the type genus of the family Chlorangiellaceae. The name Chlorangiella was coined by Giovanni Battista de Toni in 1889. It is a nomen novum for Chlorangium F.Stein.

<i>Batrachospermum</i> Genus of red algae

Batrachospermum is a genus of red algae from the family Batrachospermaceae. Due to its complex biological life cycle, descriptions of the taxon typically focus on gametophytes, while sporophytes, i.e., carposporophytes, are filamentous structures growing on the gametophyte, on which they depend. Independently living sporophytes have sometimes been described as separate species within the genus Chantransia. Additionally, differences may occur in the descriptions of the genus due to variations in taxonomic approaches, as new taxonomic techniques, as with other algae, result in changes in the assignment of individual species to the genus Batrachospermum. The genus is cosmopolitan, and its representatives are found in freshwater environments, mainly rivers, and less frequently in standing waters. These plants have thalli in the form of gelatinous-coated filaments.

References

  1. 1 2 3 Guiry, M.D.; Guiry, G.M. "Tetraspora". AlgaeBase . World-wide electronic publication, National University of Ireland, Galway.
  2. 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 da Silva, Weliton José; Nogueira, Ina de Souza; Souza Lobo, Maria Tereza Morais Pereira (8 February 2019). "First record of Tetraspora gelatinosa Link ex Desvaux (Tetrasporales, Chlorophyceae) in the state of Goiás, Central-Western Brazil". Check List. 15 (1): 143–147. doi: 10.15560/15.1.143 .
  3. 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 24 Richter, Dorota; Matuła, Jan; Pietryka, Mirosława (20 November 2014). "The Northernmost Populations of Tetraspora gelatinosa (Chlorophyta) from Spitsbergen". Polish Polar Research. 35 (3): 521–538. doi: 10.2478/popore-2014-0027 .
  4. 1 2 Wujek, Daniel E.; Chambers, John E. (Winter 1965). "Microstructure of Pseudocilia of Tetraspora gelatinosa (Vauch) Desv". Transactions of the Kansas Academy of Science. 68 (4): 563. doi:10.2307/3627470. JSTOR   3627470.
  5. 1 2 Chapman, Russell Leonard (1 September 2010). "Algae: the world's most important "plants"—an introduction". Mitigation and Adaptation Strategies for Global Change. 18 (1): 5–12. doi: 10.1007/s11027-010-9255-9 .
  6. 1 2 3 4 5 6 Hardikar, Revati; Haridevi, C. K.; Ram, Anirudh; Khandeparker, Rakhee; Amberkar, Ujwala; Chauhan, Meena (19 January 2019). "Inter-annual variability of phytoplankton assemblage and Tetraspora gelatinosa bloom from anthropogenically affected harbour, Veraval, India". Environmental Monitoring and Assessment. 191 (2): 87. doi:10.1007/s10661-019-7192-y. PMID   30659367. S2CID   58551534.
  7. 1 2 Maneeruttanarungroj, Cherdsak; Phunpruch, Saranya (October 2017). "Effect of pH on Biohydrogen Production in Green Alga Tetraspora sp. CU2551". Energy Procedia. 138: 1085–1092. doi: 10.1016/j.egypro.2017.10.122 .
  8. Baker, A.L. "Image Based Key-Tetraspora". Phycokey. Archived from the original on 9 November 2019. Retrieved 22 April 2019.
  9. Link, Desvaux (1818). "Observations sur les plantes des environs d'Angers,pour servir de supplement a la flore Maine et Loire, et de suite a l'histoire naturelle et critique des plantes de France" (46): 1–188.{{cite journal}}: Cite journal requires |journal= (help)
  10. 1 2 3 Baker, A.L. "Phycokey -- an image based key to Algae (PS Protista), Cyanobacteria, and other aquatic objects". University of New Hampshire Center for Freshwater Biology. Archived from the original on March 8, 2019. Retrieved March 5, 2019.
  11. 1 2 3 Lembi, C.A; Wayne, P.L (1971). "Ultrastructure of Pseudocilia in Tetraspora Lubrica (Roth) AG". Journal of Cell Science. 9 (3): 569–579. doi:10.1242/jcs.9.3.569. PMID   5148010. Archived from the original on 21 April 2019. Retrieved 21 April 2019.
  12. Booton, Gregory C.; Floyd, Gary L.; Fuerst, Paul A. (April 1998). "Polyphyly of Tetrasporalean Green Algae Inferred from Nuclear Small-Subunit Ribosomal DNA". Journal of Phycology. 34 (2): 306–311. doi:10.1046/j.1529-8817.1998.340306.x. S2CID   83822523.
  13. 1 2 Butt; Choudary; Shameel; Shahzad (2004). "Phycochemistry and bioactivity of Tetraspora (Volvocophyta) from Sindh" (PDF). Pakistan Journal of Botany. 36 (3): 531–547. Archived (PDF) from the original on 15 June 2016. Retrieved 21 April 2019.
  14. Whenua, Manaaki. "Algal factsheet: Tetraspora-like colonies (Tetrasporaceae)". Landcare Research. Archived from the original on April 18, 2019. Retrieved March 14, 2019.
  15. Anderson, Donald M.; Glibert, Patricia M.; Burkholder, Joann M. (August 2002). "Harmful algal blooms and eutrophication: Nutrient sources, composition, and consequences". Estuaries. 25 (4): 704–726. doi:10.1007/bf02804901. S2CID   44207554.
  16. Graneli, E; Salomon, P.S; Fistarol, G.O (2008). "The Role of Allelopathy for Harmful Algae Bloom Formation". Algal Toxins: Nature, Occurrence, Effect and Detection. NATO Science for Peace and Security Series A: Chemistry and Biology. pp. 159–178. doi:10.1007/978-1-4020-8480-5_5. ISBN   978-1-4020-8479-9.
  17. 1 2 3 Brook, A.J; Whitton, B.A; John, D.M (2002). The freshwater algal flora of the British Isles: An identification guide to freshwater and terrestrial algae. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. ISBN   0521770513.
  18. 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 Pickett-Heaps, J. D. (November 1973). "Cell Division in Tetraspora". Annals of Botany. 37 (5): 1017–1026. doi:10.1093/oxfordjournals.aob.a084765.