Transmisogyny

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Graffiti in Berlin branding the Liebig 34 squatters as transmisogynists Fruhlingstag.jpg
Graffiti in Berlin branding the Liebig 34 squatters as transmisogynists

Transmisogyny, otherwise known as trans-misogyny and transphobic misogyny, is the intersection of transphobia and misogyny as experienced by trans women and transfeminine people. [1] [2] The term was coined by Julia Serano in her 2007 book Whipping Girl to describe a particular form of oppression experienced by trans women. [3] [4] [5] In an interview with The New York Times , Serano explores the roots of transmisogyny as a critique of feminine gender expressions which are "ridiculed in comparison to masculine interests and gender expression." [6]

Contents

Transmisogyny is a central concept in transfeminism and is commonly referenced in intersectional feminist theory. In her definition of transmisogyny, Serano does not limit those affected by transmisogyny to individuals who identify as transgender and includes others, such as cisgender people, and those who identify as drag queens. [7]

Framework

The concept of transmisogyny hinges on two other concepts first described by Serano: traditional sexism and oppositional sexism. The former is the idea that "maleness and masculinity are superior to femaleness and femininity", while the latter holds male and female as "rigid, mutually exclusive categories". Transmisogyny stems from both these concepts. [2]

In Whipping Girl, Julia Serano writes that the existence of trans women is seen as a threat to a "male-centered gender hierarchy". [8] : 15  Gender theorist Judith Butler echoes this assumption, stating that the murder of transgender women by men is "the most toxic form that masculinity can take", a way for the killer to assert power over the victim in the instant, in response to the idea of the intrinsic nature of his power (i.e., his masculinity) being threatened. Butler states that trans women have relinquished masculinity, showing that it is possible to do so. [9]

Terms

Transfeminists use the terms transmisogyny-affected (often shortened to the acronym TMA) and transmisogyny-exempt (often shortened to TME) to distinguish in a non-essentialist fashion between individuals' relationships with transmisogyny in a way that focuses on gender rather than gender expression or sex assignment. [10] [11] Transmisogyny-affected refers to trans individuals who are aligned with womanhood and therefore affected by transmisogyny. Transmisogyny-exempt refers to anyone who is not marginalized by transmisogyny, a category which includes cis people as well as trans men and nonbinary people. [12]

Instances

United States

Transgender women face harsher levels of discrimination than some other transgender people. A study on workplace experiences after people receive sex changes found that trans women, on average, lose almost one third of their salary (see Gender pay gap in the United States), are respected less, and receive more harassment. At the same time, trans men often experience slight salary raises and greater authority in the workplace. [13]

According to Laura Kacere (2014), trans people experience a disproportionately large number of hate crimes, with trans women experiencing the majority of these crimes. [14] The National Coalition of Anti-Violence Programs (2012) found that police violence is three times higher against transgender people than it is against cisgender people. [15] In fact, over half of all anti-LGBTQIA+ homicides were perpetrated against transgender women. [14] (See List of people killed for being transgender.) In the United States, the majority of transmisogyny is directed at trans women of color. The Human Rights Campaign Foundation (2018) reports significant overlaps between the gender identity and race of anti-trans violence victims: of the known homicides of transgender people from 2013 to 2018, approximately 92% were trans women, and approximately 70% were black. [16] Kacere (2014) also states that 21% of transgender women and 47% of black transgender women have experienced incarceration, rates that are much higher than those for the overall U.S. population. [14]

Ecuador

A study of discrimination directed against lesbian, bisexual, transsexual, transgender and intersex women in Ecuador found that transgender women "lack protection against discrimination in both law and practice." As a result, trans women have faced violence, sexual abuse, and discrimination in educational, health and workforce institutions. [17]

The Netherlands

When transgender women are murdered, the victim being a trans woman is still often used as the justification for their murder. [18] According to Transgender Netwerk Nederland, at least 14% experience violence or credible threats [18] and are abused seven times more often than the average. [19] According to Dinah Bons from Trans United Europe, trans women often face harassment, violence, or threats of violence, but it is hard to get accurate statistics on the matter as there is severe hesitancy to report the crime [18] and the government is unwilling to track it as a statistic. [20] Bons also thinks the media does not cover the yearly murders of trans women. [18]

Sexualization and harassment

Julia Serano has stated that many trans women experience an additional layer of misogyny in the form of fetishization. [21] She notes that, despite transitioning, trans women are still commonly perceived as male; however, they are rarely sexualized as such. In the porn industry, whose target audience is primarily heterosexual men, trans women are largely presented as sexual objects rather than "predatory". [8] [ page needed ]

According to Serano, the sexualisation of trans women is not solely because transgender women, by nature of their relative rarity, are viewed as "exotic": she notes that trans women are sexualized particularly much even compared to other types of "rare" women. [8] [ page needed ] In Whipping Girl, Serano writes on what she calls a "predator–prey dichotomy" where "men are invariably viewed as predators and women as prey." [8] : 255  Because of this view, trans women are perceived to be luring men by transitioning and "turning [themselves] into sexual objects that no red-blooded man can resist." [8] [ page needed ]

Transmisogynistic violence and harassment directed towards trans feminine individuals is often perpetrated by strangers rather than those known by the victim and oftentimes includes catcalling and other forms of verbal abuse. [22] Although some states have non-discrimination laws protecting transgender individuals, there is no federal law specifically designed to protect those who identify as transgender. [22]

Relation to transphobia

Transmisogyny is a distinct category of transphobia in that transmisogyny mainly focuses on trans women and other transgender individuals who demonstrate femininity, whereas transphobia is a more general term, covering a broader spectrum of prejudice and discrimination towards transsexual and transgender individuals. [23] Julia Serano states in Whipping Girl that "[w]hen the majority of jokes made at the expense of trans people center on 'men wearing dresses' or 'men who want their penises cut off' that is not transphobia – it is transmisogyny. When the majority of violence and sexual assaults committed against trans people is directed at trans women, that is not transphobia – it is transmisogyny." [8] : 14–15 

Serano gives an example of the discrimination that trans feminine individuals experience and how it differs from what she assumes is the experience of a trans masculine individual in a New York Times interview,

Once in San Francisco I saw a trans woman dressed like an average feminine woman walk past a straight couple on the street. The man turned to the woman and sneered "Did you see all that crap he's wearing?" He was referring to her dress and jewelry and makeup and all that. If a trans man had walked by, they might also have ridiculed him for being transgender. But I doubt very much they would have made fun of his masculine clothing. [24]

See also

Related Research Articles

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Misogyny</span> Prejudice against, or hatred of, women

Misogyny is hatred of, contempt for, or prejudice against women or girls. It is a form of sexism that can keep women at a lower social status than men, thus maintaining the social roles of patriarchy. Misogyny has been widely practised for thousands of years. It is reflected in art, literature, human societal structure, historical events, mythology, philosophy, and religion worldwide.

The word cisgender describes a person whose gender identity corresponds to their sex assigned at birth, i.e., someone who is not transgender. The prefix cis- is Latin and means on this side of. The term cisgender was coined in 1994 as an antonym to transgender, and entered into dictionaries starting in 2015 as a result of changes in social discourse about gender. The term has been and continues to be controversial and subject to critique.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Transphobia</span> Anti-transgender prejudice

Transphobia consists of negative attitudes, feelings, or actions towards transgender people or transness in general. Transphobia can include fear, aversion, hatred, violence or anger towards people who do not conform to social gender roles. Transphobia is a type of prejudice and discrimination, similar to racism, sexism, or ableism, and it is closely associated with homophobia. Transgender people of color can experience many different forms of discrimination simultaneously.

The following outline is provided as an overview of and topical guide to transgender topics.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Transfeminism</span> Branch of feminism

Transfeminism, or trans feminism, is a branch of feminism focused on transgender women and informed by transgender studies. Transfeminism focuses on the effects of transmisogyny and patriarchy on trans women. It is related to the broader field of queer theory. The term was popularized by Emi Koyama in The Transfeminist Manifesto.

Gender expression, or gender presentation, is a person's behavior, mannerisms, and appearance that are socially associated with gender, namely femininity or masculinity. Gender expression can also be defined as the external manifestation of one's gender identity through behavior, clothing, hairstyles, voice, or body characteristics. Typically, a person's gender expression is thought of in terms of masculinity and femininity, but an individual's gender expression may incorporate both feminine and masculine traits, or neither. A person's gender expression may or may not match their assigned sex at birth. This includes gender roles, and accordingly relies on cultural stereotypes about gender. It is distinct from gender identity.

Sheila Jeffreys is a former professor of political science at the University of Melbourne, born in England. A lesbian feminist scholar, she analyses the history and politics of human sexuality.

The American-Canadian sexologist Ray Blanchard proposed a psychological typology of gender dysphoria, transsexualism, and fetishistic transvestism in a series of academic papers through the 1980s and 1990s. Building on the work of earlier researchers, including his colleague Kurt Freund, Blanchard categorized trans women into two groups: homosexual transsexuals who are attracted exclusively to men and are feminine in both behavior and appearance; and autogynephilic transsexuals who experience sexual arousal at the idea of having a female body. Blanchard and his supporters argue that the typology explains differences between the two groups in childhood gender nonconformity, sexual orientation, history of sexual fetishism, and age of transition.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Transgender sexuality</span> Sexuality of transgender people

Sexuality in transgender individuals encompasses all the issues of sexuality of other groups, including establishing a sexual identity, learning to deal with one's sexual needs, and finding a partner, but may be complicated by issues of gender dysphoria, side effects of surgery, physiological and emotional effects of hormone replacement therapy, psychological aspects of expressing sexuality after medical transition, or social aspects of expressing their gender.

<i>The Transsexual Empire</i> 1979 book by Janice Raymond

The Transsexual Empire: The Making of the She-Male is a 1979 book critical of transsexualism by American radical feminist author and activist Janice Raymond. The book is derived from Raymond's dissertation, which was produced under the supervision of the feminist theologian Mary Daly.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Julia Serano</span> American writer and activist

Julia Michelle Serano is an American writer, musician, spoken-word performer, transgender and bisexual activist, and biologist. She is known for her transfeminist books, such as Whipping Girl (2007), Excluded (2013), and Outspoken (2016). She is also a public speaker who has given many talks at universities and conferences. Her writing is frequently featured in queer, feminist, and popular culture magazines.

Womyn-born womyn (WBW) is a term developed during second-wave feminism to designate women who were assigned female at birth, were raised as girls, and identify as women. The policy is noted for exclusion of trans women. Third-wave feminism and fourth-wave feminism have generally done away with the idea of WBW.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Trans woman</span> Woman assigned male at birth

A trans woman is a woman who was assigned male at birth. Trans women have a female gender identity and may experience gender dysphoria. Gender dysphoria may be treated with gender-affirming care.

<i>Whipping Girl</i> 2007 book on transgender issues by Julia Serano

Whipping Girl: A Transsexual Woman on Sexism and the Scapegoating of Femininity is a 2007 book by the gender theorist, biologist, and writer Julia Serano. The book is a transfeminist manifesto that makes the case that transphobia is rooted in sexism and that transgender activism is a feminist movement. The second edition of the book was published in March 2016.

Feminist views on transgender topics vary widely.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Discrimination against gay men</span> Prejudice, hatred, or bias toward gay men, male homosexuality, or men perceived to be gay

Discrimination against gay men, sometimes called gayphobia, is a form of homophobic prejudice, hatred, or bias specifically directed toward gay men, male homosexuality, or men who are perceived to be gay. This discrimination is closely related to femmephobia, which is the dislike of, or hostility toward, individuals who present as feminine, including gay and effeminate men.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Outline of LGBT topics</span> Overview of and topical guide to LGBT topics

The following outline offers an overview and guide to LGBT topics.

LGBT erasure refers to the tendency to intentionally or unintentionally remove LGBT groups or people from record, or downplay their significance, which includes lesbian, gay, bisexual, transgender people and those who identify as queer. This erasure can be found in a number of written and oral texts, including popular and scholarly texts.

Discrimination against transgender men and transmasculine individuals, sometimes referred to as transandrophobia, anti-transmasculinity, or transmisandry, is a similar concept to transmisogyny and discrimination against non-binary people. Transmisogyny, discrimination against transgender men and discrimination against nonbinary people are types of transphobia which affect trans women, trans men and nonbinary people respectively.

Cisnormativity or cissexual assumption is the assumption that everyone is, or ought to be, cisgender. The term can further refer to a wider range of presumptions about gender assignment, such as the presumption of a gender binary, or expectations of conformity to gender roles even when transgender identities are otherwise acknowledged. Cisnormativity is a form of cisgenderism, an ideology which promotes various normative ideas about gender, to the invalidation of individuals' own gender identities, analogous to heterosexism or ableism.

References

  1. ↑ Kevin L. Nadal (2017). The SAGE Encyclopedia of Psychology and Gender. SAGE Publications. pp. 1728–1731. ISBN   978-1-5063-5324-1. Archived from the original on 4 June 2021. Retrieved 22 January 2020.
  2. 1 2 Arayasirikul, Sean; Wilson, Erin C. (24 August 2019). "Spilling the T on Trans-Misogyny and Microaggressions: An Intersectional Oppression and Social Process Among Trans Women". Journal of Homosexuality. 66 (10): 1415–1438. doi:10.1080/00918369.2018.1542203. PMID   30475682. S2CID   53729580.
  3. ↑ Krell, Elías Cosenza (2017). "Is Transmisogyny Killing Trans Women of Color?". TSQ: Transgender Studies Quarterly. 4 (2): 226–242. doi: 10.1215/23289252-3815033 .
  4. ↑ Serano, Julia. "Transmisogyny primer" (PDF). Archived (PDF) from the original on 26 April 2019. Retrieved 10 September 2014.
  5. ↑ Harrison, Kelby (2013). Sexual deceit: the ethics of passing. Lexington Books. p. 12. ISBN   978-0-7391-7706-8. Archived from the original on 25 January 2020. Retrieved 4 November 2016.
  6. ↑ Carstensen, Caitlyn (22 June 2017). "Julia Serano, Transfeminist Thinker, Talks Transmisogyny". The New York Times.
  7. ↑ Serano, Julia (2016). Outspoken: A Decade of Transgendered Activism and Trans Feminism. Switch Hitter Press. pp. 66–79.
  8. 1 2 3 4 5 6 Serano, Julia (2016). Whipping Girl: A Transsexual Woman on Sexism and the Scapegoating of Femininity. Basic Books. ISBN   978-1-58005-623-6. OCLC   944012152.
  9. ↑ "Why Do Men Kill Trans Women? Gender Theorist Judith Butler Explains". Broadly. 16 December 2015. Archived from the original on 26 December 2015. Retrieved 24 December 2015.
  10. ↑ Cavar, Sarah Lynn (7 May 2020). Enacting Transbutch: Queer Narratives Beyond Essentialism (Thesis). hdl: 10166/5968 .
  11. ↑ Liashenko, Joshua (2022). Queering Care: Community Advocacy Among Trans Healthcare Professionals (Thesis). OCLC   1367493125.[ page needed ]
  12. ↑ "Trans-Inclusive Language Guide".
  13. ↑ Schilt, Kristen; Wiswall, Matthew (11 September 2008). "Before and After: Gender Transitions, Human Capital, and Workplace Experiences". The B.E. Journal of Economic Analysis & Policy. 8 (1). doi:10.2202/1935-1682.1862. S2CID   51580726.
  14. 1 2 3 Kacere, Laura (27 January 2014). "Transmisogyny 101: What It Is and What Can We Do About It". Everyday Feminism. Archived from the original on 17 May 2019. Retrieved 21 April 2017.
  15. ↑ National Coalition of Anti-Violence Programs (2013). "A Report from the National Coalition of Anti-Violence Programs (NCAVP): Lesbian, Gay, Bisexual, Transgender, Queer, and HIV-Affected Hate Violence in 2012" (PDF). National Coalition of Anti-Violence Programs. Archived (PDF) from the original on 11 November 2020. Retrieved 17 September 2020.
  16. ↑ "A National Epidemic: Fatal Anti-Transgender Violence in America". HRC. Archived from the original on 20 October 2021. Retrieved 20 October 2021.
  17. ↑ Almeida, Aline Britto de; Vásquez, Elizabeth; Rodríguez, Mónica; Klein, Guayaquil Dayane; Cordero, Tatiana Mendieta; Varea, Soledad (2008). "Ecuador: Discrimination of Lesbian, Bisexual, Transsexual, Transgender and Intersex Women" (PDF). CiteSeerX   10.1.1.563.8340 . S2CID   154832726.
  18. 1 2 3 4 "Moord op transvrouw leidt tot Kamervragen: 'Dit geweld moet stoppen'". RTL Nieuws (in Dutch). 13 January 2022. Retrieved 5 July 2023.
  19. ↑ Lotens, Lisa (20 November 2018). "Transgender personen worden zeven keer vaker mishandeld dan gemiddeld". Vice (in Dutch). Retrieved 5 July 2023.
  20. ↑ "Kamervraag - De moorden op, geweld tegen en zelfdodingen door trans personen in Nederland". www.openkamer.org (in Dutch). Retrieved 5 July 2023.
  21. ↑ Bianco, Marcie (September–October 2016). "A manifesto for all: Bisexual trans activist and author Julia Serano wants to make feminism inclusive" (PDF). Curve . Vol. 26, no. 5. pp. 28–29. Archived (PDF) from the original on 14 February 2019. Retrieved 1 August 2019.
  22. 1 2 Stotzer, Rebecca L. (May 2009). "Violence against transgender people: A review of United States data". Aggression and Violent Behavior. 14 (3): 170–179. doi:10.1016/j.avb.2009.01.006.
  23. ↑ How Fake "Experts" Are Driving the Campaign Against Trans People (Website), GenderGP, 13 September 2021, archived from the original on 6 December 2021, retrieved 6 December 2021
  24. ↑ Carstensen, Caitlyn (22 June 2017). "Julia Serano, Transfeminist Thinker Talks Trans-Misogyny". The New York Times.
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