Water supply and sanitation in Costa Rica

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Costa Rica: Water and Sanitation
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Data
Access to an improved water source97% (2010) [1]
Access to improved sanitation95% (2010) [1]
Continuity of supply (%)n/a
Average urban water use (liter/capita/day)n/a
Average urban water and sewer bill for 20m3US$5/month
Share of household metering96%
Share of collected wastewater treated4% (2007)
Annual investment in WSSUS$5/capita (1991-1998 average)
Share of self-financing by utilities40%
Share of tax-financing30%
Share of external financing30%
Institutions
Decentralization to municipalitiesVery limited
National water and sanitation companyYes, AyA
Economic regulatory agencyYes, multi-sector regulator (ARESEP)
Responsibility for policy settingMinistry of Health and Ministry of Environment
Sector lawNo
Number of urban service providers2 (AyA and EHSP S.A.)
Number of rural service providers1,827 rural systems managed by community-based organizations (ASADAS)

Costa Rica has made significant progress in the past decade in expanding access to water supply and sanitation , but the sector faces key challenges in low sanitation connections, poor service quality, and low cost recovery.

Contents

Access

In 2015, in Costa Rica, 98% of the population had access to "improved" water, 99.5% and 92%, in urban and rural areas, respectively. In 2015, there were still around 111 thousand people lacking access to "improved" water. Regarding sanitation, in 2015, around 274 thousand people did not have access to "improved" sanitation. In the same year, 95% of the population had access to "improved" sanitation, 95% and 92%, in urban and rural areas, respectively. [2] [3]

Costa Rica has made meaningful progress in expansion of water services in urban areas over the past decades. Approximately 99% of the urban population is connected to water supply (as compared to an average of 90% in the LAC region), a significant increase from 92% in 1990. Around 48% had urban sanitation connections to public sewerage or had individual septic tanks. [4]

Rural coverage is lower, with about 95% of the 1.7 million rural inhabitants connected to public water supply, although not all of the water provided is safe. 96% of the population has access to improved sanitation, mostly through the use of septic tanks. Because of its achievements in increasing access to water supply and sanitation, the UN Special Rapporteur for the human right of water and sanitation has said after a visit in 2009, "Costa Rica (is placed) among the most advanced countries in the Latin American and Caribbean region." [4]

Service quality

The countrywide increase in coverage rates in water and sanitation masks shortcomings in the quality of service.

Drinking water quality

In 2007, 18% of the population did not receive water of potable quality through 1,032 water systems in rural areas and small towns, operated by municipalities and community-based organizations, called ASADAS by their Spanish acronym, that consist of volunteers without specialized training. [5] The quality of drinking water of some communities is affected by pesticides used on pineapple plantations. For example, about 6,000 people in Siquirres are unable to drink local tap water and have to be supplied by tanker trucks since 2007. [6] [7]

A survey of rural residents in the watersheds of the Baru and Guabo Rivers conducted in 2005 showed that illnesses from poor-quality piped water were common and that the community-based organizations in charge of operating the systems lacked adequate support as well as appropriate expertise. [8] Furthermore, the vast majority of indigenous peoples living in the 24 reserves in the country do not have access to safe drinking water or sanitation services. [4]

Continuity of supply

In most of the regions of the country, water production capacity is close to current demand, so the risk of facing water deficits future is high and, in fact, various cities already suffer from water shortages and rationing. For example, a water crisis was generated by tourist and real estate developments in the area of the popular Manuel Antonio National Park: Since the existing water supply systems could not cope with the substantial increase in demand, for more than a year hotels and real estate developments had to receive water from AyA water tankers. [4]

Wastewater treatment

As of 2015 21% of all households were connected to a sewer system. However, only 15% of the collected sewerage is being treated, so that most of the wastewater collected is discharged into rivers and the sea without any treatment, generating public health risks and water resources contamination. As of 2007, some wastewater treatment plants were out of operation. At the time only 7 small towns had wastewater treatment plants, all of which had been built before 1975. [5] As of 2011, bidding was underway for a large wastewater treatment plant for the metropolitan area of San José with Japanese financing. [9]

Septage management

The existing on-site sanitation installations, such as septic tanks, are not always an adequate solution. Some of them contaminate aquifers which are used as water supply sources. Furthermore, the sludge (septage) removed while cleaning septic tanks is usually disposed of in rivers and constitutes a source of pollution. [4]

Responsibility for water supply and sanitation

The responsibility for water and sanitation is spread over a wide number of institutions and is regulated by numerous laws and regulations, some of which are outdated. According to a 2009 report by the UN Special Rapporteur on the human right to water and sanitation after a visit to Costa Rica, there is a "duplication of responsibilities, lack of inter-agency coordination and, at times, conflicting competencies in the planning and development of water and sanitation policies." Furthermore, "several institutions with competencies to monitor compliance with the existing normative framework do not have sufficient human, technical and financial resources to carry out their monitoring functions effectively". [4]

Policy and regulation

Responsibility for water and sanitation policy is shared by the Ministry of Health (MINSALUD) and the Ministry of Environment, Energy and Telecommunications (MINAET). Other Ministries also have a role in the sector, sometimes with overlapping functions and responsibilities.

The economic regulation of the major service providers - AyA and ASADAS - is the responsibility of the Regulatory Authority for Public Services (ARESEP) created in 1999, which is responsible for tariff setting, setting technical regulations, and monitoring the compliance with these regulations.

AyA de facto has an important indirect policy and regulatory role since it monitors the compliance with technical norms, can take over failing systems and advises the Ministry in the development of the sector. This double role implies a conflict of interest. AyA's management is politically nominated and frequently replaced on the basis of political cycles.

Service provision

Map of Costa Rica Cs-map-EN.png
Map of Costa Rica

According to the Drinking Water Law of 1953 the country's 81 municipalities (called cantons) are responsible for the provision of water and sanitation services. In reality municipalities operate only 240 mostly small water systems reaching only 17% of the population, while most of the population is provided by the following entities: [5]

In addition to its role of service provider, AyA is responsible for providing support to water and sanitation associations in rural communities outside of AyA's service area and monitoring their compliance with technical norms. AyA can assume the operation of failing systems in order to guarantee the continuity of provision of services. The Rural Works Department within AyA is responsible for the planning, design, financing and construction of rural water supply and sanitation systems and the provision of technical assistance to the ASADAS.

Economic efficiency (water losses)

Non-revenue water ("water losses") in Costa Rican water companies is high, as most systems are operating with losses usually over 50%, a value which reflects a high level of inefficiency and compromises continuity of service.

Financial aspects

Tariffs and cost recovery

San Jose, Capital of Costa Rica 4- Vue San Jose.jpg
San José, Capital of Costa Rica

Water and sewer tariffs in Costa Rica are approved by the regulatory agency ARESEP. Revenues in the Costa Rican water and sanitation sector do not cover operation and maintenance costs, and the financial situation of the sector is precarious.

Tariff levels do not allow for full cost recovery. In the case of AyA, there are cross-subsidies from the metropolitan area of San José to the other urban and rural areas of the country. The tariff is set based on short term cash flow needs rather than on real economic costs of service provision. AyA requests tariff increases when its financial situation is precarious and not a result of long-term investment planning. The regulator tends to approve these requests only partially.

AyA has not been compensated by the government for assuming its role played as the main subsidy provider to the rural sector. This situation puts a high financial burden on AyA and is one of the reasons for AyA's financial problems. Since the government does not directly subsidize the rural sector it is not aware of the magnitude of the problem and of its financial impact on AyA.

In rural areas tariffs do not allow for cost recovery either. Rural tariffs vary and stood at an average equivalent to US$0.18 per cubic meter in 2001, compared to US$0.25-0.28 per cubic meter charged by AyA.

Investment and financing

Costa Rican investment per capita in water supply and sanitation from 1990 to 2006 in constant US Dollars of 2006 Costa Rica, Investment in WSS per capita 1990-2006.png
Costa Rican investment per capita in water supply and sanitation from 1990 to 2006 in constant US Dollars of 2006

Great efforts and large investment to the Costa Rican water and sanitation sector are required to improve water and sanitation services. In the past, over 60% of the sector investments came from government resources, half of which was financed by multilateral loans. [11] However, given the current investment needs of the sector, the government can no longer maintain such a high share of sector financing. Consequently, there is a need for increasing internal cash generation by service providers and for the mobilization of commercial financing.

According to the Controlaría General de la República, US$203 million were invested in water supply and sanitation from 1990 to 2006, which is on average US$3.3 per capita and year. The investment reached its peak in 1999, when it was US$6.3 per capita. Since 2000, it fell back substantially until reaching only US$0.7 in 2005 and US$1.1 in 2006. Compared to other Latin American countries, this investment level is very low. [12]

Most of the investments in rural areas are being financed through grants channeled through AyA.

In 2002 AyA proposed a sector modernization program (2001–2020), which envisages maintaining urban water coverage at 98.5% and drastically increasing coverage of urban sewerage to 89% by 2020. It also envisages an increase in rural water coverage to 90% by 2020. The total investment required for implementing this program amounts to US$1.6 Billion or approximately US$80 million per year, and reflects the many years of neglect in the maintenance of AyA's assets. This corresponds to four times the average annual investment during 1991–1998. AyA estimated in 2002 [13] that, taking into account increased cash generation and efficiency improvements, only about 40% of the investment would still have to be financed by the government.

External support

The major donors involved in the water and sanitation sector are Japanese JICA, German KfW, and CABEI, the Central American Bank for Economic Integration.

Central American Bank for Economic Integration

AyA is aiming to increase rural coverage to 98% in the next three or four years with the agreement between the Banco Popular and the Central American Bank for Economic Integration (CABEI) signed in March 2007. The main goals of the agreement are to promote ASADAS sustainability and to help it achieve 100% coverage, as well as to register ASADAS into an automated information system to improve operations records and tariff collections. [14]

Inter-American Development Bank

The IDB assisted the government in designing a water and sanitation subnational program. [15]

Japanese Bank for International Cooperation

In 2006 the Japanese Bank for International Development (JBIC) and the government of Costa Rica signed the Metropolitan San José Environment Improvement Project loan to develop a wastewater treatment plant, installation of sewerage, and consulting services. [16]

Relevant laws

Relevant laws include the following:

[17]

See also

Related Research Articles

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Water supply and sanitation in Latin America</span>

Water supply and sanitation in Latin America is characterized by insufficient access and in many cases by poor service quality, with detrimental impacts on public health. Water and sanitation services are provided by a vast array of mostly local service providers under an often fragmented policy and regulatory framework. Financing of water and sanitation remains a serious challenge.

Water supply and sanitation in Colombia have been improved in many ways over the past decades. Between 1990 and 2010, access to improved sanitation increased from 67% to 82%, but access to improved water sources increased only slightly from 89% to 94%. In particular, coverage in rural areas lags behind. Furthermore, despite improvements, the quality of water and sanitation services remains inadequate. For example, only 73% of those receiving public services receive water of potable quality and in 2006 only 25% of the wastewater generated in the country underwent any kind of treatment.

Uruguay is the only country in Latin America that has achieved quasi-universal coverage of access to safe drinking water supply and adequate sanitation. Water service quality is considered good, with practically all localities in Uruguay receiving disinfected water on a continuous basis. 70% of wastewater collected by the national utility was treated. Given these achievements, the government's priority is to improve the efficiency of services and to expand access to sewerage, where appropriate, in areas where on-site sanitation is used.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Water supply and sanitation in Chile</span>

Water supply and sanitation in Chile were once considered efficient and equitable but have recently struggled to reliably provide water throughout the country. Chile's water resources have been strained by the Chilean water crisis, which was partially caused by a continuing mega drought that began in 2010, along with an increased demand for agricultural and other commercial interests.

Access to at least basic water increased from 94% to 97% between 2000 and 2015; an increase in access to at least basic sanitation from 73% to 86% in the same period;

Drinking water supply and sanitation coverage in Honduras has increased significantly in the last decades. However, the sector is still characterized by poor service quality and poor efficiency in many places. Coverage gaps still remain, particularly in rural areas.

Drinking water and sanitation in Nicaragua are provided by a national public utility in urban areas and water committees in rural areas. Despite relatively high levels of investment, access to drinking water in urban areas has barely kept up with population growth, access to urban sanitation has actually declined and service quality remains poor. However, a substantial increase in access to water supply and sanitation has been reached in rural areas.

Bolivia's drinking water and sanitation coverage has greatly improved since 1990 due to a considerable increase in sectoral investment. However, the country continues to suffer from what happens to be the continent's lowest coverage levels and from low quality of services. Political and institutional instability have contributed to the weakening of the sector's institutions at the national and local levels. Two concessions to foreign private companies in two of the three largest cities—Cochabamba and La Paz/El Alto—were prematurely ended in 2000 and 2006 respectively. The country's second largest city, Santa Cruz de la Sierra, relatively successfully manages its own water and sanitation system by way of cooperatives. The government of Evo Morales intends to strengthen citizen participation within the sector. Increasing coverage requires a substantial increase of investment financing.

Water supply and sanitation in Venezuela is currently limited and many poor people remain without access to piped water. Service quality for those with access is mixed, with water often being supplied only on an intermittent basis and most wastewater not being treated. Non-revenue water is estimated to be high at 62%, compared to the regional average of 40%. The sector remains centralized despite a decentralization process initiated in the 1990s that has now been stalled. Within the executive, sector policies are determined by the Ministry of Environment. The national water company HIDROVEN serves about 80% of the population.

The water and sanitation sector in Peru has made important advances in the last two decades, including the increase of water coverage from 30% to 85% between 1980 and 2010. Sanitation coverage has also increased from 9% to 37% from 1985 to 2010 in rural areas. Advances have also been achieved concerning the disinfection of drinking water and in sewage treatment. Nevertheless, many challenges remain, such as:

The Dominican Republic has achieved impressive increases in access to water supply and sanitation over the past two decades. However, the quality of water supply and sanitation services remains poor, despite the country's high economic growth during the 1990s.

Water supply and sanitation in Indonesia is characterized by poor levels of access and service quality. Almost 30 million people lack access to an improved water source and more than 70 million of the country's 264 million population has no access to improved sanitation. Only about 2% of people have access to sewerage in urban areas; this is one of the lowest in the world among middle-income countries. Water pollution is widespread on Bali and Java. Women in Jakarta report spending US$11 per month on boiling water, implying a significant burden for the poor.

The drinking water supply and sanitation sector in Guatemala is characterized by low and inconsistent service coverage, especially in rural areas; unclear allocation of management responsibilities; and little or no regulation and monitoring of service provision.

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Drinking water supply and sanitation in Egypt is characterized by both achievements and challenges. Among the achievements are an increase of piped water supply between 1998 and 2006 from 89% to 100% in urban areas and from 39% to 93% in rural areas despite rapid population growth; the elimination of open defecation in rural areas during the same period; and in general a relatively high level of investment in infrastructure. Access to an at least basic water source in Egypt is now practically universal with a rate of 98%. On the institutional side, the regulation and service provision have been separated to some extensions through the creation of a national Holding Company for Water and Wastewater in 2004, and of an economic regulator, the Egyptian Water Regulatory Agency (EWRA), in 2006. , many challenges remain. Only about one half of the population is connected to sanitary sewers. Partly because of low sanitation coverage about 50,000 children die each year because of diarrhea. Another challenge is low cost recovery due to water tariffs that are among the lowest in the world. This in turn requires government subsidies even for operating costs, a situation that has been aggravated by salary increases without tariff increases after the Arab Spring. Poor operation of facilities, such as water and wastewater treatment plants, as well as limited government accountability and transparency, are also issues.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Water supply and sanitation in Morocco</span>

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<span class="mw-page-title-main">Water supply and sanitation in Turkey</span> Overview of water supply and sanitation in Turkey

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Water supply and sanitation in Vietnam is characterized by challenges and achievements. Among the achievements is a substantial increase in access to water supply and sanitation between 1990 and 2010, nearly universal metering, and increased investment in wastewater treatment since 2007. Among the challenges are continued widespread water pollution, poor service quality, low access to improved sanitation in rural areas, poor sustainability of rural water systems, insufficient cost recovery for urban sanitation, and the declining availability of foreign grant and soft loan funding as the Vietnamese economy grows and donors shift to loan financing. The government also promotes increased cost recovery through tariff revenues and has created autonomous water utilities at the provincial level, but the policy has had mixed success as tariff levels remain low and some utilities have engaged in activities outside their mandate.

References

  1. 1 2 WHO/UNICEf Joint Monitoring Programme for Water Supply and Sanitation (JMP):http://www.wssinfo.org/data-estimates/table/ Data Estimates
  2. "WASHwatch.org - Costa Rica". washwatch.org. Retrieved 2017-04-12.
  3. WHO/UNICEF Joint Monitoring Programme for Water Supply and Sanitation
  4. 1 2 3 4 5 6 UN Human Rights Council. "Report of the independent expert on the issue of human rights obligations related to access to safe drinking water and sanitation, Catarina de Albuquerque, Addendum: Mission to Costa Rica, June 2009" . Retrieved 21 October 2012.
  5. 1 2 3 Mora Alvarado, Darner Adrián; Alvaro Araya García (July 2008). "Estado del agua para consumo humano y saneamiento en costa rica al año 2007". vol.17 no.32: Revista Costarricense de Salud Pública. Retrieved 21 October 2012.{{cite web}}: CS1 maint: location (link)
  6. La Nación: 6,000 personas deben recibir agua en cisternas, 2 October 2008
  7. Arguedas Ortiz, Diego (2016). "Bananen, Ananas & Co". Le Monde Diplomatique No. 19. p. 27.{{cite web}}: Missing or empty |url= (help)
  8. Kristen Welsh: Assessing Access to Potable Water in Rural Communities in Costa Rica, Tropical Resources, The Bulletin of the Yale Tropical Resources Institute, 2006, p. 67
  9. La Naci'on (30 January 2011). "Aguas negras del Valle Central serán tratadas en La Carpio" . Retrieved 21 October 2012.
  10. Source: Controlaría General de la República. Data on population and deflators: World Bank World Development Indicators database
  11. World Bank: Costa Rica Country Assistance Strategy 2004, p. 21 World Bank CAS
  12. See: Investment in water supply and sanitation in Latin America
  13. AyA, Agua Potable y Saneamiento de Costa Rica – Análisis Sectorial, Julio de 2002
  14. Business News America (7 March 2007). "AyA aims for 98% potable water coverage in rural areas - Costa Rica" . Retrieved 21 October 2012.{{cite web}}: |last= has generic name (help)
  15. INter-American Development Bank:Water and sanitation subnational program design
  16. JICA:Press Release:JBIC Signs an ODA Loan Agreement for Costa Rica: Supporting Improvements in Living and Public Health Environment Through Development of Sewerage in Metropolitan Area, 3 April 2006, retrieved on October 21, 2012
  17. AyA. "Legislación Institucional" . Retrieved 21 October 2012.