Cerbera odollam

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Cerbera odollam
Cerbera odollam 08718.jpg
Cerbera odollam, or the "pong-pong" tree
Scientific classification OOjs UI icon edit-ltr.svg
Kingdom: Plantae
Clade: Tracheophytes
Clade: Angiosperms
Clade: Eudicots
Clade: Asterids
Order: Gentianales
Family: Apocynaceae
Genus: Cerbera
Species:
C. odollam
Binomial name
Cerbera odollam
Synonyms

Cerbera dilatata Markgr.

Cerbera odollam is a tree species in the family Apocynaceae commonly known as the suicide tree or pong-pong. [1] It bears a fruit known as othalanga whose seeds yield a potent poison called cerberin that has been used for trials by ordeal, [2] suicide, and poisonings. [3]

Contents

It is native to South and Southeast Asia, Pacific Islands, and Queensland, Australia, [4] growing preferentially along sandy coasts, riverbanks, and by mangrove swamps. It is also grown in tropical areas such as Hawaii as an ornamental. [5]

Description

Diagram of different parts of the Cerbera odollam plant. Cerbera manghas - Kohler-s Medizinal-Pflanzen-175.jpg
Diagram of different parts of the Cerbera odollam plant.

Cerbera odollam bears a close resemblance to oleander, another highly toxic plant from the same family. It grows to approximately 10-12 meters in height. Its leaves are glossy and it has white flowers with yellow throats. [6] The plant as a whole yields a milky, white latex.[ citation needed ]

Its fruit, about 5-10cm in length, starts green and becomes red as it matures. [7] It has a green fibrous shell enclosing an ovoid kernel measuring approximately 2 cm × 1.5 cm and containing two extremely poisonous seeds. On exposure to air, the white kernel turns violet, then dark grey, and ultimately brown, or black. [8]

History

Common names

Cerbera odollam is known by a number of vernacular names, depending on the region. These include othalam (ഒതളം) in the Malayalam language used in Kerala, India; kattu arali (காட்டரளி) in the adjacent state of Tamil Nadu; dabur (ডাবুর) in Bengali; famentana, kisopo, samanta or tangena in Madagascar; and pong-pong, buta-buta, bintaro or nyan in Southeast Asia. [9]

Use in Trials by Ordeal

The poisonous kernel of the Cerbera odollam fruit was used in trials by ordeal like the tangena throughout the regions where it grew. In Madagascar in the 18th and 19th centuries, over 3000 people died per year from consuming Cerbera odollam seeds in a trial by ordeal. These trials were intended to determine whether the subject was guilty of a crime, often witchcraft. [10] In these trials, a dosage of the seed was administered. If the subject lived, they were considered innocent of whatever crime they were accused. If they died, they were considered guilty. These trials relied on the belief that some underlying spirit would distinguish between innocence and guilt. [11]

Trials by ordeal using cerberin were extremely common. In the mid-1800s, leaders attempted to regulate trials by ordeal in Madagascar. For minor crimes, dogs or chickens were used as a substitute for humans. However, it wasn't until the early 1900s that this practice stopped. [12]

Use for Suicide

Cerbera odollam was also frequently used for suicide and continues to be used for this purpose in the modern day. For instance, a 2004 study found that it was responsible for about one suicide death per week between 1989 and 1999 in Kerala, India. [13] To commit suicide, people would remove the kernels from the seed and combine it with jaggery to eat. Death would occur quickly, about 3-6 hours after ingestion. [14]

Toxicity

Cardiac glycosides

Cerberin, the poisonous compound in the kernels of Cerbera odollam, is a species called a cardiac glycoside. Cardiac glycosides are found in many other plants including foxglove and Cerbera manghas as well as some toads. Cardiac glycosides work on the heart and are used in medicine to treat heart failure and arrhythmia, but can easily cause an overdose if used improperly. [15] [16]

All cardiac glycosides are believed to be able to block the heart's sodium and potassium ATPase, [17] however structural differences cause differences in toxicity and symptoms. All cardiac glycosides contain a steroid ring, a lactone ring, and a sugar moiety. [18]

Symptoms

Cerbera odollam Pong pong tree.jpg
Cerbera odollam

The kernels of C. odollam contain cerberin, a digoxin-type cardiac glycoside toxin that causes disruption of the heart beat, most often fatally. [19] One kernel contains a fatal dose of the toxin. Electrocardiographic abnormalities were noted to be common, the most common being sinus bradycardia. [20] Around half of the patients develop thrombocytopenia. Temporary cardiac pacing has been used in the management, apart from other supportive measures. [21]

Common symptoms of cerberin poisoning include a burning sensation in the mouth, vomiting, retching, nausea, irregular respiration, headache, bradycardia, coma, and death. [22] Some cases are asymptomatic. [23]

Use as a poison

Cerbera odollam was commonly used for poisonings as well as suicide. Its bitter flavor could was easily masked by spicy food, allowing victims to ingest it without noticing. [24] In Kerala, India, C. odollam is responsible for about 50% of plant poisoning cases and 10% of all poisonings. [25]

Only one analytical procedure exists to determine the presence of C. odollam after death, making it hard to detect. This method compares thin layer chromatography of tissues collected in an autopsy suspected to contain C. odollam with chromatograms obtained from the C. odollam kernel. The fatalities from poisonings, particularly from C. odollam, are very underestimated due to the lack of analytical investigation of most deaths. [26] Poisonings outside the tree's natural habitat are considered to be rare [27] but may just be going unnoticed due to a lack of testing.

Modern uses

Flowers of Cerbera odollam Cerbera odollam.jpg
Flowers of Cerbera odollam

The seeds of C. odollam are used as biopesticides, insect repellants, and rat poisons [28] due to its toxicity to these animals.

Investigations have also been made into the feasibility of using the seeds as a feedstock in the production of biodiesel. Oil can be extracted from the seeds and transesterified into fatty acid methyl esters. This is a good alternative to other plants commonly used for biodiesels because unlike these plants, it grows on typically non-arable land and therefore does not compete with food crops. [29]

See also

Related Research Articles

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Cardiac glycoside</span> Class of organic compounds

Cardiac glycosides are a class of organic compounds that increase the output force of the heart and decrease its rate of contractions by inhibiting the cellular sodium-potassium ATPase pump. Their beneficial medical uses include treatments for congestive heart failure and cardiac arrhythmias; however, their relative toxicity prevents them from being widely used. Most commonly found as secondary metabolites in several plants such as foxglove plants and milkweed plants, these compounds nevertheless have a diverse range of biochemical effects regarding cardiac cell function and have also been suggested for use in cancer treatment.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Apocynaceae</span> Dogbane and oleander family of flowering plants

Apocynaceae is a family of flowering plants that includes trees, shrubs, herbs, stem succulents, and vines, commonly known as the dogbane family, because some taxa were used as dog poison. Members of the family are native to the European, Asian, African, Australian, and American tropics or subtropics, with some temperate members. The former family Asclepiadaceae is considered a subfamily of Apocynaceae and contains 348 genera. A list of Apocynaceae genera may be found here.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Cerberin</span> Chemical compound

Cerberin is a type of cardiac glycoside, a steroidal class found in the seeds of the dicotyledonous angiosperm genus Cerbera; including the suicide tree and the sea mango. As a cardiac glycoside, cerberin disrupts the function of the heart by blocking its sodium and potassium ATPase. Cerberin can be used as a treatment for heart failure and arrhythmia.

<i>Cerbera</i> Genus of plants

Cerbera is a genus of evergreen trees or shrubs, native to tropical Asia, Australia, Madagascar, and various islands in the Indian and Pacific Oceans.

<i>Phellodendron amurense</i> Species of tree

Phellodendron amurense is a species of tree in the family Rutaceae, commonly called the Amur cork tree. It is a major source of huáng bò, one of the 50 fundamental herbs used in traditional Chinese medicine. The Ainu people used this plant, called shikerebe-ni, as a painkiller. It is known as hwangbyeok in Korean and (キハダ) kihada in Japanese.

<i>Impatiens capensis</i> Species of flowering plant

Impatiens capensis, the orange jewelweed, common jewelweed, spotted jewelweed, jewelweed, spotted touch-me-not, or orange balsam, is an annual plant in the family Balsaminaceae that is native to North America. It is common in bottomland soils, ditches, and along creeks, often growing side by side with its less common relative, yellow jewelweed.

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<span class="mw-page-title-main">P57 (glycoside)</span> Chemical compound

P57 is an oxypregnane steroidal glycoside isolated from the African cactiform Hoodia gordonii. P57 is hypothesized to be the chemical constituent from this plant mainly responsible for the putative appetite suppressant activity of Hoodia extracts.

<i>Kaempferia galanga</i> Species of flowering plant

Kaempferia galanga, commonly known as kencur, aromatic ginger, sand ginger, cutcherry, is a monocotyledonous plant in the ginger family, and one of four plants called galangal. It is found primarily in open areas in Indonesia, southern China, Taiwan, Cambodia, and India, but is also widely cultivated throughout Southeast Asia.

<i>Cerbera manghas</i> Species of plant

Cerbera manghas, commonly known as the sea mango, tangena or bintaro is a small evergreen coastal tree growing up to 12 metres (39 ft) tall. It is native to coastal areas in Africa, Asia, Australasia, and the Pacific islands. It is classified as one of the three species in the genus Cerbera that constitute mangroves.

<i>Acokanthera schimperi</i> Species of plant

Acokanthera schimperi, arrow poison tree, belonging to the family Apocynaceae, is a small tree native to eastern and central Africa as well as to Yemen.

<i>Antiaris</i> Genus of plants

Antiaris toxicaria is a tree in the mulberry and fig family, Moraceae. It is the only species currently recognized in the genus Antiaris. The genus Antiaris was at one time considered to consist of several species, but is now regarded as just one variable species which can be further divided into five subspecies. One significant difference within the species is that the size of the fruit decreases as one travels from Africa to Polynesia. Antiaris has a remarkably wide distribution in tropical regions, occurring in Australia, tropical Asia, tropical Africa, Indonesia, the Philippines, Tonga, and various other tropical islands. Its seeds are spread by various birds and bats, and it is not clear how many of the populations are essentially invasive. The species is of interest as a source of wood, bark cloth, and pharmacological or toxic substances.

<i>Cascabela thevetia</i> Species of plant

Cascabela thevetia is a poisonous plant native throughout Mexico and in Central America, and cultivated widely as an ornamental. It is a relative of Nerium oleander, giving it a common name yellow oleander.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Oleandrin</span> Chemical compound

Oleandrin is a cardiac glycoside found in the poisonous plant oleander. As a main phytochemical of oleander, oleandrin is associated with the toxicity of oleander sap, and has similar properties to digoxin.

<i>Cerbera floribunda</i> Species of tree in the family Apocynaceae

Cerbera floribunda, commonly known as cassowary plum, grey milkwood, or rubber tree, is a plant in the family Apocynaceae which is native to the region from Sulawesi to the Solomon Islands, including north east Queensland.

<i>Cissus quadrangularis</i> Species of grapevine

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<span class="mw-page-title-main">Tangena</span> Madagascan tree species whose toxic nuts were used for trials by ordeal

The tangena ordeal was a form of trial by ordeal practiced in Madagascar to determine the guilt or innocence of an accused party. The trial utilized seeds of the tree species Cerbera manghas, which produces seeds that contain highly toxic cardiac glycosides including cerberin and tanghinin.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Atractyloside</span> Chemical compound

Atractyloside (ATR) is a natural, toxic glycoside present in numerous plant species worldwide in the daisy family including Atractylis gummifera and Callilepis laureola, and it's used for a variety of therapeutic, religious, and toxic purposes. Exposure to ATR via ingestion or physical contact is toxic and can be fatal for both humans and animals, especially by kidney and liver failure. ATR acts as an effective ADP/ATP translocase inhibitor which eventually halts ADP and ATP exchange and the cell dies due to lack of energy. Historically, atractyloside poisoning has been challenging to verify and quantify toxicologically, though recent literature has described such methods within acceptable standards of forensic science.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Erythrophleine</span> Chemical compound

Erythrophleine is a complex alkaloid and ester of tricyclic diterpene acids derived from many of the plants in the genus erythrophleum. A highly toxic compound, it is most commonly known for its use in West African trials by ordeal. Exposure to erythrophleine can quickly lead to ataxia, dyspnea, heart paralysis, and sudden death. Visible effects of erythrophleine poisoning include induced terror, labored and irregular breathing, convulsions, urination, and vomiting.

<i>Cerbera inflata</i> Species of tree in the family Apocynaceae

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References

  1. ↑ Wermuth, Mary E.; Vohra, Rais; Bowman, Nena; Furbee, R. Brent; Rusyniak, Daniel E. (October 2018). "Cardiac Toxicity from Intentional Ingestion of Pong-Pong Seeds (Cerbera Odollam)". The Journal of Emergency Medicine. 55 (4): 507–511. doi:10.1016/j.jemermed.2018.05.021. ISSN   0736-4679. PMID   29941374 . Retrieved 14 October 2023.
  2. ↑ Kaplan, Sarah (25 October 2021). "The brutal harvest of India's 'suicide tree'". Washington Post. Retrieved 14 October 2023.
  3. ↑ "'Suicide tree' toxin is 'perfect' murder weapon". New Scientist. Retrieved 5 May 2024.
  4. ↑ "Cerbera odollam Gaertn". Plants of the World Online . Royal Botanic Gardens, Kew . Retrieved 9 October 2022.
  5. ↑ "National Tropical Botanical Garden | Cerbera odollam - Plant Detail - Tropical Plants Database". National Tropical Botanical Garden. Retrieved 5 May 2024.
  6. ↑ "NParks | Cerbera odollam". www.nparks.gov.sg. Retrieved 5 May 2024.
  7. ↑ "National Tropical Botanical Garden | Cerbera odollam - Plant Detail - Tropical Plants Database". National Tropical Botanical Garden. Retrieved 5 May 2024.
  8. ↑ Gaillard, Yvan; Krishnamoorthy, Ananthasankaran; Bevalot, Fabien (December 2004). "Cerbera odollam: a 'suicide tree' and cause of death in the state of Kerala, India". Journal of Ethnopharmacology. 95 (2–3): 123–126. doi:10.1016/j.jep.2004.08.004. PMID   15507323.
  9. ↑ Gaillard Y, Krishnamoorthy A, Bevalot F., 2004, "Cerbera odollam: a 'suicide tree' and cause of death in the state of Kerala, India," J. Ethnopharmacol.95(2-3):123-126.
  10. ↑ Kaplan, Sarah (25 October 2021). "The brutal harvest of India's 'suicide tree'". Washington Post. Retrieved 5 May 2024.
  11. ↑ Robb, George L. (1957). "The Ordeal Poisons of Madagascar and Africa". Botanical Museum Leaflets, Harvard University. 17 (10): 265–316. doi:10.5962/p.168507. ISSN   0006-8098. JSTOR   41762174 . Retrieved 5 May 2024.
  12. ↑ Robb, George L. (1957). "The Ordeal Poisons of Madagascar and Africa". Botanical Museum Leaflets, Harvard University. 17 (10): 265–316. doi:10.5962/p.168507. ISSN   0006-8098. JSTOR   41762174 . Retrieved 5 May 2024.
  13. ↑ Gaillard, Yvan; Krishnamoorthy, Ananthasankaran; Bevalot, Fabien (December 2004). "Cerbera odollam: a 'suicide tree' and cause of death in the state of Kerala, India". Journal of Ethnopharmacology. 95 (2–3): 123–126. doi:10.1016/j.jep.2004.08.004. PMID   15507323.
  14. ↑ Gaillard, Yvan; Krishnamoorthy, Ananthasankaran; Bevalot, Fabien (December 2004). "Cerbera odollam: a 'suicide tree' and cause of death in the state of Kerala, India". Journal of Ethnopharmacology. 95 (2–3): 123–126. doi:10.1016/j.jep.2004.08.004. PMID   15507323.
  15. ↑ "Cardiac glycoside overdose: MedlinePlus Medical Encyclopedia". medlineplus.gov. Retrieved 5 May 2024.
  16. ↑ Saxena, Mansi; Jadhav, Ekta B.; Sankhla, Mahipal Singh; Singhal, Muskan; Parihar, Kapil; Awasthi, Kumud Kant; Awasthi, Garima (31 August 2022). "Bintaro (Cerbera odollam and Cerbera manghas): an overview of its eco-friendly use, pharmacology, and toxicology". Environmental Science and Pollution Research. 30 (28): 71970–71983. Bibcode:2022ESPR...3071970S. doi:10.1007/s11356-022-22585-w. PMC   9428885 . PMID   36044149.
  17. ↑ Botelho, Ana Flávia M.; Pierezan, Felipe; Soto-Blanco, Benito; Melo, Marília Martins (February 2019). "A review of cardiac glycosides: Structure, toxicokinetics, clinical signs, diagnosis and antineoplastic potential". Toxicon. 158: 63–68. doi:10.1016/j.toxicon.2018.11.429. PMID   30529380.
  18. ↑ Botelho, Ana Flávia M.; Pierezan, Felipe; Soto-Blanco, Benito; Melo, Marília Martins (February 2019). "A review of cardiac glycosides: Structure, toxicokinetics, clinical signs, diagnosis and antineoplastic potential". Toxicon. 158: 63–68. doi:10.1016/j.toxicon.2018.11.429. PMID   30529380.
  19. ↑ Menezes, Ritesh G.; Usman, Muhammad Shariq; Hussain, Syed Ather; Madadin, Mohammed; Siddiqi, Tariq Jamal; Fatima, Huda; Ram, Pradhum; Pasha, Syed Bilal; Senthilkumaran, S.; Fatima, Tooba Qadir; Luis, Sushil Allen (August 2018). "Cerbera Odollam Toxicity: A Review". Journal of Forensic and Legal Medicine. 58: 113–116. doi:10.1016/j.jflm.2018.05.007. ISSN   1878-7487. PMID   29778924. S2CID   29155448.
  20. ↑ Gaillard, Yvan; Krishnamoorthy, Ananthasankaran; Bevalot, Fabien (December 2004). "Cerbera odollam: a 'suicide tree' and cause of death in the state of Kerala, India". Journal of Ethnopharmacology. 95 (2–3): 123–126. doi:10.1016/j.jep.2004.08.004. PMID   15507323.
  21. ↑ Menon, M Suraj (2016). "Clinical profile and management of poisoning with suicide tree: An observational study". Heart Views. 17 (4): 136–139. doi: 10.4103/1995-705X.201783 . PMC   5363088 . PMID   28400936.
  22. ↑ Gaillard, Yvan; Krishnamoorthy, Ananthasankaran; Bevalot, Fabien (December 2004). "Cerbera odollam: a 'suicide tree' and cause of death in the state of Kerala, India". Journal of Ethnopharmacology. 95 (2–3): 123–126. doi:10.1016/j.jep.2004.08.004. PMID   15507323.
  23. ↑ Menon, MSuraj; Kumar, Prasantha; Jayachandran, Ci (2016). "Clinical profile and management of poisoning with suicide tree: An observational study". Heart Views. 17 (4): 136–139. doi: 10.4103/1995-705X.201783 . PMC   5363088 . PMID   28400936.
  24. ↑ "'Suicide tree' toxin is 'perfect' murder weapon". New Scientist. Retrieved 5 May 2024.
  25. ↑ Gaillard, Yvan; Krishnamoorthy, Ananthasankaran; Bevalot, Fabien (December 2004). "Cerbera odollam: a 'suicide tree' and cause of death in the state of Kerala, India". Journal of Ethnopharmacology. 95 (2–3): 123–126. doi:10.1016/j.jep.2004.08.004. PMID   15507323.
  26. ↑ Gaillard, Yvan; Krishnamoorthy, Ananthasankaran; Bevalot, Fabien (December 2004). "Cerbera odollam: a 'suicide tree' and cause of death in the state of Kerala, India". Journal of Ethnopharmacology. 95 (2–3): 123–126. doi:10.1016/j.jep.2004.08.004. PMID   15507323.
  27. ↑ Wermuth, Mary E.; Vohra, Rais; Bowman, Nena; Furbee, R. Brent; Rusyniak, Daniel E. (October 2018). "Cardiac Toxicity from Intentional Ingestion of Pong-Pong Seeds (Cerbera Odollam)". The Journal of Emergency Medicine. 55 (4): 507–511. doi:10.1016/j.jemermed.2018.05.021. PMID   29941374.
  28. ↑ "NParks | Cerbera odollam". www.nparks.gov.sg. Retrieved 5 May 2024.
  29. ↑ Kansedo, Jibrail; Lee, Keat Teong; Bhatia, Subhash (June 2009). "Cerbera odollam (sea mango) oil as a promising non-edible feedstock for biodiesel production". Fuel. 88 (6): 1148–1150. Bibcode:2009Fuel...88.1148K. doi:10.1016/j.fuel.2008.12.004.
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