Crataegus

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Hawthorns
Temporal range: Eocene–Recent
Crataegus, various species, fruit.jpg
Fruit of four different species of Crataegus (clockwise from top left: C. coccinea , C. punctata , C. ambigua and C. douglasii )
Scientific classification OOjs UI icon edit-ltr.svg
Kingdom: Plantae
Clade: Tracheophytes
Clade: Angiosperms
Clade: Eudicots
Clade: Rosids
Order: Rosales
Family: Rosaceae
Subfamily: Amygdaloideae
Tribe: Maleae
Subtribe: Malinae
Genus: Crataegus
Tourn. ex L.
Type species
Crataegus rhipidophylla   [1]

Crataegus ( /krəˈtiːɡəs/ [2] ), commonly called hawthorn, quickthorn, [3] thornapple, [4] May-tree, [5] whitethorn, [5] Mayflower or hawberry, is a genus of several hundred species of shrubs and trees in the family Rosaceae, [6] native to temperate regions of the Northern Hemisphere in Europe, Asia, North Africa and North America. The name "hawthorn" was originally applied to the species native to northern Europe, especially the common hawthorn C. monogyna, and the unmodified name is often so used in Britain and Ireland. The name is now also applied to the entire genus and to the related Asian genus Rhaphiolepis .

Etymology

The generic epithet, Crataegus, is derived from the Greek kratos "strength" because of the great strength of the wood and akis "sharp", referring to the thorns of some species. [7] The name haw, originally an Old English term for hedge (from the Anglo-Saxon term haguthorn, "a fence with thorns"), [8] also applies to the fruit. [9]

Description

Plant of Crataegus monogyna Common hawthorn.jpg
Plant of Crataegus monogyna
Close-up of the flowers of C. monogyna (MHNT) Crataegus monogyna - flowers and buds.jpg
Close-up of the flowers of C. monogyna

Crataegus species are shrubs or small trees, mostly growing to 5–15 m (15–50 ft) tall, [9] with small pome fruit and (usually) thorny branches. The most common type of bark is smooth grey in young individuals, developing shallow longitudinal fissures with narrow ridges in older trees. The thorns are small sharp-tipped branches that arise either from other branches or from the trunk, and are typically 1–3 cm (1⁄2–1 in) long (recorded as up to 11.5 cm or 4+1⁄2 in in one case [9] ). The leaves grow spirally arranged on long shoots, and in clusters on spur shoots on the branches or twigs. The leaves of most species have lobed or serrated margins and are somewhat variable in shape. [10] The fruit, sometimes known as a "haw", is berry-like but structurally a pome containing from one to five pyrenes that resemble the "stones" of plums, peaches, etc., which are drupaceous fruit in the same subfamily. [10]

Taxonomy

The number of species in the genus depends on taxonomic interpretation. Some botanists in the past recognised 1000 or more species, [11] many of which are apomictic microspecies. A reasonable number is estimated to be 200 species. [9] The genus likely first appeared in the Eocene, with the ancestral area likely being Eastern North America and in Europe, which at that time remained closely linked due to the North Atlantic Land Bridge. The earliest known leaves of the genus from the Eocene of North America, with the earliest leaves from Europe being from the Oligocene. [12]

The genus is classified into sections which are further divided into series. [13] [14] Series Montaninsulae has not yet been assigned to a section. [14] [15] [16] The sections are:

Selected species

Selected hybrids

Ecology

Hawthorns provide food and shelter for many species of birds and mammals, and the flowers are important for many nectar-feeding insects. [21] Hawthorns are also used as food plants by the larvae of a large number of Lepidoptera species, such as the small eggar moth, E. lanestris . [22] Haws are important for wildlife in winter, particularly thrushes and waxwings; these birds eat the haws and disperse the seeds in their droppings. [23]

Uses

Culinary use

Crataegus monogyna 'Crimson Cloud' in Elko, Nevada 2013-05-23 07 24 06 Crataegus monogyna 'Crimson Cloud' blossoms in Elko Nevada.jpg
Crataegus monogyna 'Crimson Cloud' in Elko, Nevada

The "haws" or fruits of the common hawthorn, C. monogyna, are edible. In the United Kingdom, they are sometimes used to make a jelly or homemade wine. [24] The leaves are edible, and if picked in spring when still young, are tender enough to be used in salads. [25] The young leaves and flower buds, which are also edible, are known as "bread and cheese" in rural England. [24] In the southern United States, fruits of three native species are collectively known as mayhaws and are made into jellies which are considered a delicacy. The Kutenai people of northwestern North America used red and black hawthorn fruit for food.

On Manitoulin Island, Ontario, some red-fruited species are called hawberries. During colonisation, European settlers ate these fruits during the winter as the only remaining food supply. People born on the island are now called "haweaters".

The fruits of Crataegus mexicana are known in Mexico as tejocotes and are eaten raw, cooked, or in jam during the winter. They are stuffed in the piñatas broken during the traditional pre-Christmas celebration known as Las Posadas . They are also cooked with other fruits to prepare a Christmas punch. The mixture of tejocote paste, sugar and chili powder produces a popular Mexican candy called rielitos, which is manufactured by several brands.

The 4 cm fruits of the species Crataegus pinnatifida (Chinese hawthorn) are tart, bright red and resemble small crabapple fruits. They are used to make many kinds of Chinese snacks, such as tanghulu — coated in sugar syrup and skewered – and haw flakes. The fruits, which are called 山楂 shān zhā in Chinese, are also used to produce jams, jellies, juices, alcoholic beverages and other drinks; these could in turn be used in other dishes (for instance, many older recipes for Cantonese sweet and sour sauce call for shānzhā jam). In South Korea, a liquor called sansachun (산사춘) is made from the fruits.

In Iran, the fruits of Crataegus (including Crataegus azarolus var. aronia, as well as other species) are known as zâlzâlak and eaten raw as a snack, or made into a jam known by the same name.

The fruits of North America's Crataegus greggiana are made into preserves. [26]

Research

A 2008 Cochrane Collaboration meta-analysis of previous studies concluded that evidence exists of "a significant benefit in symptom control and physiologic outcomes" for an extract of hawthorn used as an adjuvant in treating chronic heart failure. [27] A 2010 review [28] concluded that "Crataegus [hawthorn] preparations hold significant potential as a useful remedy in the treatment of cardiovascular disease". The review indicated the need for further study of the best dosages and concluded that although "many different theoretical interactions between Crataegus and orthodox medications have been postulated ... none have [yet] been substantiated." [28]

Phytochemicals found in hawthorn include tannins, flavonoids, oligomeric proanthocyanidins and phenolic acids. [29]

Traditional medicine

Several species of hawthorn have been used in traditional medicine. The products used are often derived from C. monogyna, C. laevigata, or related Crataegus species, "collectively known as hawthorn", not necessarily distinguishing between these species. [9] The dried fruits of Crataegus pinnatifida (called shān zhā in Chinese) are used in traditional Chinese medicine, primarily as a digestive aid. A closely related species, Crataegus cuneata (Japanese hawthorn, called sanzashi in Japanese) is used in a similar manner. Other species (especially Crataegus laevigata) are used in herbal medicine where the plant is believed to strengthen cardiovascular function. [30]

The Kutenai people of northwestern North America used black hawthorn fruit (Kutenai language: kaǂa; approximate pronunciation: kasha) for food, and red hawthorn fruit (Kutenai language: ǂupǂi; approximate pronunciation: shupshi) in traditional medicine. [31]

Side effects

Overdose can cause cardiac arrhythmia and low blood pressure, while milder side effects include nausea and dizziness. [32] Patients taking digoxin should avoid taking hawthorn. [33] [34]

Landscaping

Many species and hybrids are used as ornamental and street trees. The common hawthorn is extensively used in Europe as a hedge plant. During the British Agricultural Revolution in the eighteenth and nineteenth centuries, hawthorn saplings were mass propagated in nurseries to create the new field boundaries required by the Inclosure Acts. [35] Several cultivars of the Midland hawthorn C. laevigata have been selected for their pink or red flowers. Hawthorns are among the trees most recommended for water conservation landscapes.[ citation needed ]

Grafting

Hawthorn rootstock on a medlar tree in Totnes, United Kingdom Medlar rootstock.jpg
Hawthorn rootstock on a medlar tree in Totnes, United Kingdom

Hawthorn can be used as a rootstock in the practice of grafting. It is graft-compatible with Mespilus (medlar) and with pear, [10] and makes a hardier rootstock than quince, but the thorny suckering habit of the hawthorn can be problematic. [9]

Seedlings of Crataegus monogyna have been used to graft multiple species on the same trunk, such as pink hawthorn, pear tree and medlar, the result being trees which give pink and white flowers in May and fruits during the summer. "Chip budding" has also been performed on hawthorn trunks to have branches of several varieties on the same tree. Such trees can be seen in Vigo, Spain, and in the northwest of France (mainly in Brittany).[ citation needed ]

Bonsai

Many species of hawthorn make excellent bonsai trees. [36] They are grown and enjoyed for their display of flowers.

Other uses

The wood of some Crataegus species is hard and resistant to rot. [8] In rural North America, it was prized for use as tool handles and fence posts. [6] [8] First Nations people of western Canada used the thorns for durable fish hooks and minor skin surgeries. [8]

Folklore

The Scots saying "Ne'er cast a cloot til Mey's oot" conveys a warning not to shed any cloots (clothes) before the summer has fully arrived and the mayflowers (hawthorn blossoms) are in full bloom. [37] [38]

The custom of employing the flowering branches for decorative purposes on 1 May is of very early origin, but since the adoption of the Gregorian calendar in 1752, the tree has rarely been in full bloom in England before the second week of that month. In the Scottish Highlands, the flowers may be seen as late as the middle of June. The hawthorn has been regarded as the emblem of hope, and its branches are stated to have been carried by the ancient Greeks in wedding processions, and to have been used by them to deck the altar of Hymenaios. The supposition that the tree was the source of Jesus's crown of thorns doubtless gave rise to the tradition among the French peasantry (current as late as 1911) that it utters groans and cries on Good Friday, and probably also to the old popular superstition in Great Britain and Ireland that ill luck attended the uprooting of hawthorns. Branches of Glastonbury thorn (C. monogyna 'Biflora', [9] sometimes called C. oxyacantha var. praecox), which flowers both in December and in spring, were formerly highly valued in England, on account of the legend that the tree was originally the staff of Joseph of Arimathea. [39]

Robert Graves, in his book The White Goddess , [5] traces and reinterprets many European legends and myths in which the whitethorn (hawthorn), also called the May-tree, is central.

Hawthorn trees demarcate a garden plot; according to legend, they are strongly associated with the fairies. Crataegus in Germany, bluehender Weissdorn, Mai 2015.jpg
Hawthorn trees demarcate a garden plot; according to legend, they are strongly associated with the fairies.

It was once said to heal the broken heart. In Ireland, the red fruit is, or was, called the Johnny MacGorey or Magory.

Serbian folklore that spread across Balkan notes that hawthorn (Serbian глог or glog) is essential to kill vampires, and stakes used for their slaying must be made from the wood of the thorn tree. [40]

In Gaelic folklore, hawthorn (in Scottish Gaelic, sgitheach and in Irish, sceach) 'marks the entrance to the otherworld' and is strongly associated with the fairies. [41] Lore has it that it is very unlucky to cut the tree at any time other than when it is in bloom; however, during this time, it is commonly cut and decorated as a May bush (see Beltane). [42] This warning persists to modern times; folklorist Bob Curran has questioned whether the ill luck of the DeLorean Motor Company was associated with the destruction of a fairy thorn to make way for a production facility. [43]

The superstitious dread of harming hawthorn trees prevalent in Britain and Ireland may also be connected to an old belief that hawthorns, and more especially 'lone thorns' (self-seeded specimens standing in isolation from other trees) originate from lightning or thunderbolts and give protection from lightning strikes. [44]

Hawthorn trees are often found beside clootie wells; at these types of holy wells, they are sometimes known as rag trees, for the strips of cloth which are tied to them as part of healing rituals. [45] 'When all fruit fails, welcome haws' was once a common expression in Ireland.

According to a medieval legend, the Glastonbury thorn, C. monogyna 'Biflora', which flowers twice annually, was supposed to have miraculously grown from a walking stick planted by Joseph of Arimathea at Glastonbury in Somerset, England. The original tree was destroyed in the sixteenth century during the English Reformation, but several cultivars have survived. Since the reign of King James I, it has been a Christmas custom to send a sprig of Glastonbury thorn flowers to the Sovereign, which is used to decorate the royal family's dinner table. [46]

In the Victorian era, the hawthorn represented hope in the language of flowers. [47]

The hawthorn – species unspecified [20] – is the state flower of Missouri. The legislation designating it as such was introduced by Sarah Lucille Turner, one of the first two women to serve in the Missouri House of Representatives. [48]

Propagation

Although it is commonly stated that hawthorns can be propagated by cutting, this is difficult to achieve with rootless stem pieces. Small plants or suckers are often transplanted from the wild. Seeds require stratification and take one or two years to germinate. [49] Seed germination is improved if the pyrenes that contain the seed are subjected to extensive drying at room temperature, before stratification. [50] Uncommon forms can be grafted onto seedlings of other species. [49]

Related Research Articles

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Mayhaw</span> Species of fruit and plant

Mayhaw is the name given to the fruit of the species of Crataegus series Aestivales that are common in wetlands throughout the southern United States. The principal species are C. aestivalis, the eastern mayhaw, and C. opaca, the western mayhaw.

<i>Crataegus monogyna</i> Species of flowering plant in the rose family Rosaceae

Crataegus monogyna, known as common hawthorn, one-seed hawthorn, or single-seeded hawthorn, is a species of flowering plant in the rose family Rosaceae. It is native to Europe, northwestern Africa, and Western Asia, but has been introduced in many other parts of the world.

<i>Crataegus mollis</i> Species of hawthorn

Crataegus mollis, known as downy hawthorn or red hawthorn, is a species of plant that occurs in eastern North America from southeastern North Dakota east to Nova Scotia and southwest to eastern Texas. The range of this species is from southern Ontario and Michigan to eastern North Dakota and southward to Denison, Texas, and Arizona. This tree inhabits wooded bottomlands, the prairie border, and the midwest savanna understorey.

<i>Crataegus heterophylla</i> Species of hawthorn

Crataegus heterophylla, known as the various-leaved hawthorn, is of uncertain origin. Its original native range is not known, possibly it was the Caucasus of Western Asia. Suggestions that it originated in Southeast Europe may be based on misidentification.

<i>Crataegus laevigata</i> Species of plant

Crataegus laevigata, known as the Midland hawthorn, English hawthorn, woodland hawthorn, or mayflower, is a species of hawthorn native to western and central Europe, from Great Britain and Spain east to the Czech Republic and Hungary. It is also present in North Africa. The species name is sometimes spelt C. levigata, but the original orthography is C. lævigata.

<i>Crataegus pinnatifida</i> Species of hawthorn

Crataegus pinnatifida, also known as mountain hawthorn, Chinese haw, Chinese hawthorn or Chinese hawberry, refers to a small to medium-sized tree, as well as the fruit of the tree. The fruit is bright red, 1.5 in (38 mm) in diameter.

Crataegus flava, common names summer haw and yellow-fruited thorn, is a species of hawthorn native to the southeastern United States from Virginia to Florida, west to Mississippi. Due to an error by Sargent the name C. flava was, and often still is, used for a different species C. lacrimata, which belongs to a different series, the Lacrimatae series. Flavae is another group of species that were thought to be related to the misidentified C. flava, and although it is now apparent that they are not related, the name of the group remains. Because the true identity of this species has only recently been discovered, the name is rarely used correctly. Individuals with red fruit occur; these have sometimes been assigned to a separate species, Crataegus senta.

<i>Crataegus azarolus</i> Mediterranean species of flowering plant

Crataegus azarolus is a species of hawthorn known by the common names azarole, azerole and Mediterranean medlar. It is native to the Mediterranean Basin and is a common plant there, growing on sites comparable to those the European common hawthorn grows on. In the Arab countries it is the most common hawthorn species. When growing in the wild, the azerole bears plentiful crops of haw fruits, which are similar to the haws of the European common hawthorn, but more plump.

Crataegus brachyacantha is one of the "black-fruited" species of hawthorn, but it is only very distantly related to the other black-fruited species such as C. douglasii or C. nigra. The common names blueberry haw and blueberry hawthorn refer to the appearance of the fruit, which are almost blue, and does not refer to their taste. The species is rarely cultivated but has ornamental leaves, flowers, and foliage. It is native to Louisiana, and also occurs just across the border of neighbouring states.

<i>Crataegus crus-galli</i> Species of hawthorn

Crataegus crus-galli is a species of hawthorn known by the common names cockspur hawthorn and cockspur thorn. It is native to eastern North America from Ontario to Texas to Florida, and it is widely used in horticulture. It is thought to be the parent, along with Crataegus succulenta, of the tetraploid species Crataegus persimilis.

<i>Crataegus erythropoda</i> Species of hawthorn

Crataegus erythropoda is a hawthorn native to the southern Rocky Mountains in the United States. The leaves are conspicuously shiny above and fruit ("haws") are dark purplish red. It is seldom cultivated, but at one time was listed in the nursery trade under the common name "Chocolate Haw". It is closely related to C. rivularis which has fruit that are fully black when ripe.

<i>Crataegus macrosperma</i> Species of hawthorn

Crataegus macrosperma, the bigfruit hawthorn is a species of hawthorn native to most of the eastern United States and adjacent Canada, though uncommon at lower altitudes in the south. It is sometimes misidentified as C. flabellata. It is one of the earliest hawthorns to bloom in spring.

<i>Crataegus punctata</i> Species of hawthorn

Crataegus punctata is a species of hawthorn known by the common names dotted hawthorn or white haw that is native to most of the eastern United States and eastern Canada. While some sources claim it is the state flower of Missouri, the actual legislation does not identify an exact species. Furthermore, the Missouri Department of Conservation asserts the Crataegus mollis was specifically designated as the state flower.

<i>Crataegus rhipidophylla</i> Species of hawthorn

Crataegus rhipidophylla is a species of hawthorn which occurs naturally from southern Scandinavia and the Baltic region to France, the Balkan Peninsula, Turkey, Caucasia, and Ukraine. It is poorly known as a landscape and garden plant, but seems to have potential for those uses.

<i>Crataegus saligna</i> Species of hawthorn

Crataegus saligna is a species of hawthorn known by the common name willow hawthorn that is seldom cultivated and rather rare in the wild. Its native range is wet areas of western Colorado and northeastern Utah. It is a shrub or small tree with thin, elongated leaves, small flowers, small black fruit, and reddish bark.

<i>Crataegus submollis</i> Species of hawthorn

Crataegus submollis, known as the northern downy hawthorn, northern red haw, Quebec hawthorn, or hairy cockspurthorn, is a species of hawthorn that grows to about 7 m in height and typically carries large crops of red fruit.

<i>Crataegus mexicana</i> Species of hawthorn

Crataegus mexicana is a species of hawthorn known by the common names tejocote, manzanita, tejocotera and Mexican hawthorn. It is native to the mountains of Mexico and parts of Guatemala, and has been introduced in the Andes. The fruit of this species is one of the most useful among hawthorns.

Crataegus texana, the Texas hawthorn, is a member of the family Rosaceae. Typically, it is found in the form of a small tree or a large shrub and blooms in early spring, usually in the months of March and April. Flowers of the Texas Hawthorn are white and usually produce small, one-inch, scarlet fruits that are said to resemble tiny red apples. Its twigs are usually armed with thorns that can grow to be about one to three inches long.

<i>Crataegus <span style="font-style:normal;">ser.</span> Molles</i> Species of hawthorn

Series Molles is a series within the genus Crataegus that contains at least six species of hawthorn trees and shrubs, native to Eastern North America. Some of the species are cultivated as ornamental plants. They have relatively large leaves, large flowers, and bloom early for hawthorns. The plant parts are usually hairy, particularly in early growth, and the fruit are generally red and are large for hawthorn fruit.

References

  1. ↑ J. B. Phipps (1997). Monograph of northern Mexican Crataegus (Rosaceae, subfam. Maloideae). Sida, Botanical Miscellany. Vol. 15. Botanical Research Institute of Texas. p. 12. ISBN   9781889878294.
  2. ↑ Sunset Western Garden Book, 1995:606–607
  3. ↑ I remember the kitchen as being large and airy. 1974, A Field Guide to the Trees of Britain and Northern Europe, Collins, London
  4. ↑ Voss, E. G. 1985. Michigan Flora: A guide to the identification and occurrence of the native and naturalized seed-plants of the state. Part II: Dicots (Saururaceae–Cornaceae). Cranbrook Institute of Science and University of Michigan Herbarium, Ann Arbor, Michigan.
  5. 1 2 3 Graves, Robert. The White Goddess: A Historical Grammar of Poetic Myth, 1948, amended and enlarged 1966, New York: Farrar, Straus and Giroux.
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  10. 1 2 3 Asheghi, M. Sajad (1 March 2022). "Phenotypic Diversity of Crataegus orientalis subsp. szovitsii (Pojark.) K.I.Chr. Population in Markazi Province, Iran". Erwerbs-Obstbau. 64 (1): 69–74. doi:10.1007/s10341-021-00605-2. ISSN   1439-0302. S2CID   243803560.
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  14. 1 2 Phipps, J.B. (2015), "Crataegus", in L. Brouillet; K. Gandhi; C. L. Howard; H. Jeude; R. W. Kiger; J. B. Phipps; A. C. Pryor; H. H. Schmidt; J. L. Strother; J. L. Zarucchi (eds.), Flora of North America North of Mexico, vol. 9: Magnoliophyta: Picramniaceae to Rosaceae, New York, Oxford: Oxford University Press, pp. 491–643, ISBN   978-0-19-534029-7
  15. ↑ Crataegus Linnaeus (sect. Coccineae) ser. Punctatae (Loudon) Rehder, Man. Cult. Trees ed. 2. 365. 1940
  16. ↑ Crataegus Linnaeus (sect. Coccineae) ser. Parvifoliae (Loudon) Rehder, Man. Cult. Trees ed. 2. 366. 1940
  17. ↑ Crataegus brachyacantha Sarg. & Engelm. BLUEBERRY HAWTHORN, Discover Life
  18. ↑ Crataegus brachyacantha Sarg. & Engelm. Show All blueberry hawthorn, USDA
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  20. 1 2 "Section 10-030 State floral emblem". mo.gov. Archived from the original on 22 October 2013. Retrieved 12 September 2015.
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  27. ↑ Pittler MH, Guo R, Ernst E (23 January 2008). Guo R (ed.). "Hawthorn extract for treating chronic heart failure". Cochrane Database of Systematic Reviews (1): CD005312. doi:10.1002/14651858.CD005312.pub2. PMID   18254076.
  28. 1 2 Tassell M, Kingston R, Gilroy D, Lehane M, Furey A (2010). "Hawthorn (Crataegus spp.) in the treatment of cardiovascular disease". Pharmacognosy Reviews. 4 (7): 32–41. doi: 10.4103/0973-7847.65324 . PMC   3249900 . PMID   22228939.
  29. ↑ "A Modern Herbal – Hawthorn". botanical.com. Retrieved 12 September 2015.
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  32. ↑ "Hawthorn". Memorial Sloan Kettering Cancer Center. 2019. Retrieved 12 April 2019.
  33. ↑ Dasgupta A, Kidd L, Poindexter BJ, Bick RJ (August 2010). "Interference of hawthorn on serum digoxin measurements by immunoassays and pharmacodynamic interaction with digoxin". Arch Pathol Lab Med. 134 (8): 1188–92. doi:10.5858/2009-0404-OA.1. PMID   20670141.
  34. ↑ Tankenow Roberta; Tamer Helen R.; Streetman Daniel S.; Smith Scott G.; Welton Janice L.; Annesley Thomas; Aaronson Keith D.; Bleske Barry E. (2003). "Interaction Study between Digoxin and a Preparation of Hawthorn (Crataegus oxyacantha)" (PDF). J Clin Pharmacol. 43 (6): 637–642. doi:10.1177/0091270003253417. hdl: 2027.42/97293 . PMID   12817526. S2CID   9888330.
  35. ↑ Williamson, Tom (2013), An Environmental History of Wildlife in England 1650 – 1950 Bloomsbury Academic, ISBN   978-1-4411-0863-0 (p. 104)
  36. ↑ "Hawthorn (Crataegus monogyna) progression". Bonsai Empire. 2014. Retrieved 2 October 2014.
  37. ↑ "Scuil Wab: Wird O The Month – Mey". Scottish Language Dictionaries. 2003. Archived from the original on 4 June 2008. Retrieved 28 May 2008.
  38. ↑ "Ne'er cast a clout till May be out". The Phrase Finder. Retrieved 28 May 2008.
  39. ↑ Wikisource-logo.svg This article incorporates text from a publication now in the public domain :  Chisholm, Hugh, ed. (1911). "Hawthorn (plant)". Encyclopædia Britannica . Vol. 13 (11th ed.). Cambridge University Press. pp. 101–102.
  40. ↑ "BIVŠI MINISTAR POLICIJE SRBIJE LOVI VAMPIRE! Nekada se borio sa ZEMUNSKIM KLANOM, a sada drži glogov kolac u rukama" . Retrieved 3 July 2019.
  41. ↑ Campbell, John Gregorson (1900, 1902, 2005) The Gaelic Otherworld. Edited by Ronald Black. Edinburgh, Birlinn Ltd. ISBN   1-84158-207-7 p. 345
  42. ↑ Danaher, Kevin (1972) The Year in Ireland: Irish Calendar Customs Dublin, Mercier. ISBN   1-85635-093-2 pp. 86–127
  43. ↑ Monaghan, Patricia (11 March 2004). The Red-Haired Girl from the Bog: The Landscape of Celtic Myth and Spirit. New World Library. p. 67. ISBN   978-1-57731-458-5.
  44. ↑ Hope, Alec Derwent, A Midsummer Eve's Dream: variations on a theme by William Dunbar pub. The Viking Press, New York 1970.
  45. ↑ Healy, Elizabeth (2002) In Search of Ireland's Holy Wells. Dublin, Wolfhound Press ISBN   0-86327-865-5 pp. 56–7, 69, 81
  46. ↑ Palmer, Martin and Palmer, Nigel ( The Spiritual Traveler: England, Scotland, Wales : the Guide to Sacred Sites and Pilgrim Routes in Britain, Hidden Spring, ISBN   1-58768-002-5 (p. 200)
  47. ↑ "Language of Flowers – Flower Meanings, Flower Sentiments". www.languageofflowers.com. Archived from the original on 24 November 2016. Retrieved 26 November 2016.
  48. ↑ "Sarah Lucille Turner". womenscouncil.org. Archived from the original on 4 March 2016. Retrieved 12 September 2015.
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  50. ↑ Bujarska-Borkowska, B. (2002) Breaking of seed dormancy, germination and seedling emergence of the common hawthorn (Crataegus monogyna Jacq.). Dendrobiology. 47(Supplement): 61–70. Archived 4 October 2011 at the Wayback Machine

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