In the 1870s the abundance of buffalo in the area had been severely diminished through the overhunting necessary to meet the growing demand from the HBC for both furs and pemmican. One academic journal states "with the disappearance of the buffalo, pork had replaced pemmican altogether",[4] showing the drastic effects of the HBC on the local buffalo population.
In 1986, approximately 10.4ha (26 acres) of land surrounding the remains of the fort was designated as Fort Pitt Provincial Park by the government of Saskatchewan.[6]
Fort Pitt (1829–1890) was a prairie trading post of the HBC on the North Saskatchewan River about 16 kilometres (9.9mi) east of the present-day Alberta border. It was on the north bank of the river on a flat above a bluff. It traded mainly in pemmican and buffalo robes with the Blackfoot, Cree, and some Métis. There was a fair amount of agriculture and horse-rearing. It was named after Thomas Pitt, a member of the HBC governing board from 1810 to 1832.
Bison and the establishment of Fort Pitt
Bison
In 1690, Henry Kelsey from the HBC became the first European to walk the prairies of Rupert's Land and see the abundance of bison. For thousands of years dating back to the Western Archaic and the Avonlea Periods, First Nations have stalked, hunted, and followed the migration of bison along the prairies.[7] Prior to European contact with North America, the bison was the most numerous of all grazing animals. Estimates of their numbers are only speculative, but may have ranged from 30,000,000 to 75,000,000.[8] By the beginning of the nineteenth century, the production of pemmican on the plains had become an industrial-scale operation.[7] For many years, prairie bison also provided pelts, hides, and other food. In the early 1800s, various fur-trading companies began strategically placing numerous trading posts on the maze of northern waterways. The Saskatchewan River provided access to the south-western area of Rupert's Land and to the Sturgeon-Weir River, which led to the Churchill River. These vast water highways spanned the future province from east to west.[9] In 1830, Fort Pitt was established on the North Saskatchewan River by the HBC in what was at its time known as the heart of buffalo country. The fort was built by Chief Factor John Rowand to meet the provisions necessary for the HBC, such as buffalo meat, hides, and pemmican.[10]
The fort was established in September 1829 by HBC company clerk Patrick Small, the son of North West Company (NWC) partner Patrick Small, the brother-in-law of David Thompson and John MacDonald and the son-in-law of David Hughes.[11][12] During the first winter Small and his men lived in tents, and building was not completed until spring 1831. It was closed in 1832 for fear of attack by surrounding Cree and Blackfoot, though it reopened in fall 1833.[citation needed]
In 1843, John Rowand, the son of John Rowand of Fort Edmonton, became master. In 1854, the elder Rowand, on his way to retirement, visited his son. While attempting to break up a fight between two voyageurs, he had a heart attack and died.[citation needed] Artist Paul Kane visited the fort in 1848.
Depletion of bison
In 1873, the bison market came to an abrupt end when Fort Pitt, once one of the most reliable sources of provisions in the Saskatchewan District, all but collapsed. The demands of numerous HBC and NWC trading companies along Saskatchewan waterways in the 1800s significantly depleted the once well established bison population. With completion of the US Union Pacific Railroad in 1869, between 1868 and 1881 an estimated 31,000,000 bison were killed, mostly as a result of trade in bison hide and sport hunting in the United States.[8][13] Despite every exertion being made by the officer in charge of the post, who sent staff to follow up and traffic wherever Indians or buffalo could be found, parties returned from the South Branch territories empty handed. After the bison were gone, almost five-sixths of the provisions brought to the post had to come from the hands of independent parties who were forced to travel staggering distances to obtain such resources. Purchases of these crucial resources soon became "a heavy expense" on the post. Meanwhile, the rest of the upper Saskatchewan posts were still able to meet the demands of the HBC.[14] The economic and social impact the depletion of bison left on Indigenous tribes was devastating.
Impact on Indigenous peoples
After the disappearance of bison in the lands surrounding Fort Pitt, Indigenous peoples attempted agriculture to provide food for their families. Their initial farming attempts failed because when choosing reserve land, chiefs had shown a decided preference for rolling, heavily wooded terrain that was better suited for traditional pursuits such as hunting and gathering than raising crops. Government authorities attributed this sorry outcome to "Indian idleness" rather than environmental circumstances. The agricultural aid promised in treaties such as implements, animals, and seeds was also slow in coming and inadequate. The government of Canada expected the Indian adoption of agriculture to be an overnight success on the Indian reserves and was more concerned with saving money than providing necessary assistance. As the trade and resources dwindled surrounding Fort Pitt, the federal government came to resent its existing treaty obligations. In particular, they came to resent the cost of feeding starving Indians and balked at assuming additional duties. Many even questioned why money should be spent on keeping a dying race alive.[15] Canadian government officials adopted a "submit or starve" technique in an attempt to force Indigenous people into forfeiting rights, signing treaties, and moving onto reserves. Big Bear resisted signing the treaty, then moved his band onto a reserve near Fort Pitt.
Smallpox
The emergence of smallpox had devastating consequences on Fort Pitt and the surrounding area. The plague of illness further taxed the already diminished recourses at Fort Pitt. The depletion of the buffalo, a fundamental food source, paired with lack of knowledge surrounding the smallpox virus directly correlated to the 100 Cree lives lost in 1869-1870. The 100 dead Cree was the second-highest death toll due to smallpox of any recorded Cree population during this time. While these are recorded numbers some estimates are provided that the smallpox virus may have claimed the lives of half of all Cree. Some sources estimate upwards of 10,000 deaths were caused by the virus.[16] "More than 100 infected Cree, forbidden from entering the fort, died outside the stockade. The dead laid[sic] for days until hungry wolves came from the forest and fought over the rotting bodies. Some sick Natives thought that if they could give the sickness back to the Canadians at Fort Pitt– where it had come from– they could stop the suffering themselves. So they hung around the fort, put their scarred faces against the pump handles and spat on the door knobs."[17]
While smallpox had devastating effects on the population surrounding Fort Pitt its effects failed to penetrate the walls of the fort to any great extent. The Journal of the American Medical Association states that as few as three people were infected inside the fort itself. The author of the article said "I can only attribute this to the fact that Mr. John Sinclair had taken precaution early in the previous summer to vaccinate all of the persons residing there."[18]
Fort Pitt provided hope to the many infected making the journey to seek aid at the fort. Many Cree set up temporary settlements in the surrounding area in hopes that the fort would be able to provide aid to the ill. The large congregation of Cree surrounding Fort Pitt may have been one of the reasons that accounts of death due to smallpox were so high in the surrounding areas.
Tension with the Blackfoot
As the relationship between Fort Pitt and the Cree began to grow, so did the tension between the Members of Fort Pitt and the Blackfoot. The Blackfoot's deemed any allies of the Cree to be enemies of the Blackfoot and thus open to exploitation and attack. "The Blackfoot considered the Hudson's Bay Company to be in league with the Cree, so their relationship with the traders became tenuous. In 1863 the Blackfoot began to raid Fort Pitt itself."[19] The fact that "Many Crees had intermarried with Hudson's Bay Company employees and were so friendly with them that the Blackfoot began to see the traders as their enemies as well."[20] Increased trading with the Woods and Plains Cree created fear amongst the HBC traders at Fort Pitt. The HBC worried that trading with the Cree would open the Cree as well as Fort Pitt itself up to raids by the Blackfoot. "The arrival of the Cree caused fear at the post that they would attract Blackfoot raiders and a possible attack on the post. Fort Pitt at the time was understaffed, both staff and the local Métis being away hunting on the plains or with the boat brigade."[21] The Blackfoot made many attempts to intercept trading parties en route to the fort, as well as making raid attempts on the fort itself.
Big Bear
Big Bear at Fort Pitt
Big Bear's presence and position within the Plains Cree was a defining factor in the relationship that Fort Pitt shared with the Cree nation. Big Bear was often described as an advocate for the peaceful negotiations between the Indigenous populations and the European settlers. Big Bear's presence in the area would have helped facilitate a less hostile environment, and would have been a significant factor in how the Plains Cree acted during the rebellion of 1885. "Despite their impoverished state and stinging sense of disillusionment and betrayal, Indians had made a solemn vow during the treaty negotiations to live in peace and were not prepared to break this pledge and plunge the region into war. Instead Big Bear and other senior Cree chiefs patiently sought a peaceful resolution to their grievances."[15] The compassion that Big Bear showed for the value of human life is made evident by treatment of the HBC members at Fort Pitt during the Cree takeover in 1885. "The absorption of the people of Fort Pitt into the camp, and of other people gathered from the surrounding countryside suggest that Big Bear and the other Woods Cree leaders saw this as essential in order to protect those whose lives might be in danger. Their goal was to keep them out of harm's way, not do harm to them. The great number of 'captives' or 'prisoners' had opted for the protection of the Cree camp upon the advice of aboriginal friends or leaders. This was difficult for the general non-Aboriginal public to comprehend."[22] Many Fort Pitt inhabitants were so comfortable with the relationship between them and the Cree they would walk uncontested into the Cree camps even after the hostilities that took place at the fort.
Big Bear and 14 band members stood trial in Regina for their participation in the events of 1885 including the capturing of Fort Pitt. Even though Big Bear not only did not participate in the violence but was an advocate against it, he was still accused of treason for not abandoning the Plains Cree at the onset of the violence. He was ultimately convicted of treason and served three years at the Stony Mountain Penitentiary.
Chief Sweet Grass
Even though Big Bear was a more powerful and recognized leader within the Crees and Saskatchewan area, Chief Sweet Grass played a large role in the securing of Treaty 6, as well as a leading role in dealing with the government. Due to Big Bear's predisposed bad reputation with McDougall, Alexander Morris had arrived to begin negotiations with a predetermined favouritism towards Chief Sweet Grass. Despite Chief Sweet Grass's holding only 25 lodges compared to Big Bear's 65, Sweet Grass was still seen as desirable because of the government belief in his ability to sway his fellow council members into signing.[23] To try to secure his people's safety and well-being moving forward with the treaty, Chief Sweet Grass addressed the governors present as such:
"When I hold your hand and touch your heart, let us be as one; use your utmost to help me and help my children so that they may prosper. It is for that reason I give you my hand."[24]
Chief Sweet Grass' legacy remains as the prime negotiator in the meetings for the signing of Treaty 6 before being integrated into Canadian society. Sweet Grass converted to Christianity in 1870,[25] being baptized into Catholicism with the name Abraham.[26] He later was shot dead by his brother, using the pistol given to him for signing the treaty.[27] The Sweet Grass Reserve is established in Battleford, Saskatchewan.
Before the introduction of Treaty 6 into land stretching into what is now Saskatchewan and Alberta, several numbered treaties had appeared as the Canadian government pushed west to open the land for settlers. Due to a lack of provincial boundaries set in place before several of the numbered treaties existing, there is an overlap in treaty / provincial lines.[28] As situations got worse in Manitoba for the Métis and other Indigenous populations, they headed further west to salvage what they could of the diminishing buffalo population. In turn, as they settled in the District of Saskatchewan, it put even greater pressure on the population there. Therefore, this left the Indigenous people of Fort Pitt, and other surrounding areas, no other options other than to seek an agreement with the Canadian government in the form of a treaty to protect their interests.[29] The main inhabitants of the land at the time consisted of Cree, with some Assiniboine, Saulteaux, and Chipewyan, although the main intention of the treaty was focused on the Cree people.
Treaty 6 was noted as one of the only treaties in which provisions such as medical treatment as well as relief in case of national disease or famine.[30] Despite Chief Big Bear's resentment towards the signing of the treaty, due to his belief that it was unfair towards its people, it went on to be signed without him. The negotiations began on 5 September 1876. In exchange for their land, they were given horses, wagons, farming equipment, as well as the promise of aid mentioned above.[10] During the initial negotiations, Morris and company had declared that the people of Fort Pitt will be given the same treaty terms presented at Fort Carlton. After Morris was given permission to establish the terms of the treaty to the Indigenous council, they met in council to debate and discuss the rest of the day. Days after initial negotiations had begun, the commissioners arrived to gather the final decision.[31] Cree Chief Sweet Grass came forward from the council to accept the terms given to them by the government, but also a plea to keep the Indigenous population alive and prosperous, stating "When I hold your hand and touch your heart, let us be as one; use your utmost to help me and help my children so that they may prosper."[32] The treaty had consisted of annual cash payments to chiefs and their band members, ranging from $5 to $25, reserve lands, schools on the reserves, as well as farming equipment and tools such as wagons, horses, livestock, twine, and ammunition.[33]
Wandering Spirit
Wandering Spirit was a war chief in the Plains Cree under the leadership of Big Bear. Wandering Spirit's personality and ideals varied from Big Bear in many ways, he was more susceptible to the use of violence instead of the peaceful negotiations preferred by Big Bear. Wandering Spirit "had initiated the killing of nine White and half-breed men on 2 April at Frog Lake." This act of defiance against Big Bear and his peaceful negotiations was a turning point in the Plains Cree's history. The war chiefs soon took control of the Plains Cree "ending Big Bear's peaceful ten-year struggle to obtain better conditions for his people."[34] One of Wandering Spirit's first movements after the Frog Lake Massacre was to proceed south-east to the HBC trading post at Fort Pitt, where Wandering Spirit demanded the post be surrendered by the North-West Mounted Police (NWMP) guarding it. In return for a peaceful surrender the NWMP were allowed to leave unharmed. Wandering Spirit gave the employees of HBC and their families the choice of leaving with the police or surrendering to the Cree. All of the HBC employees chose to surrender instead of leave Fort Pitt with the police. Wandering Spirit ordered his men to raid the fort, filling wagons full of food clothes and supplies. The Cree then returned to Frog Lake with 44 hostages from Fort Pitt. Most of the hostages were placed under the control of the Woods Cree at Frog Lake.[34]
In May 1885, Fort Pitt was once again visited by Wandering Spirit and Big Bear's Cree. By this time, the Cree Camp had grown to an estimated 300 men, 700 women and children, as well as containing hostages, dogs, and horses. The Cree once again took the resources form the fort, this time departing to Frenchman Butte. Upon the departure the Cree set fire to many of the buildings at Fort Pitt. This was one of the most aggressive and destructive actions that were directed directly at Fort Pitt itself.[34]
While Wandering Spirit showed more aggression than Big Bear he often still tried to avoid violence. The fact that he gave the option of surrender and departure to the NWMP at Fort Pitt emphasized that while he was not opposed to violence it was not his desired outcome. There is some debate about whether the release of the NWMP was Wandering Spirit's idea or due to the intervention of Big Bear.
Wandering Spirit was not opposed to the presence of the HBC in the North-West Territories; however, he strongly opposed the government. The police force at Fort Pitt was his target in May 1885, not the many traders and their families who worked for the HBC. Hostilities were never expressed towards the traders or their families, and they were welcomed into the Cree camps.[22][35]
Wandering Spirit eventually surrendered with other members of the Cree at Fort Pitt, where he and other Cree were accused of their crimes and murders of 1885.
Francis Jeffery Dickens
In 1883, 25 NWMP were sent to Fort Pitt under the command of Francis Dickens, the son of the novelist Charles Dickens. Dickens arrived "Several days late and was met by a large camp of Indians, many of them dissatisfied because they had not received their promised agriculture equipment."[19] At this time, Fort Pitt was seeing an increase in the number of dissatisfied Plains Cree in the surrounding area. The lack of resources and growing tensions throughout the prairies were influential factors in the 1885 rebellion. Soon after the violence broke out at Duck Lake, John Rae requested that Dickens track and ensure that Big Bear's Cree had remained in the Fort Pitt area. There was a growing fear that an increasing number of Cree would join the Métis and pose an even greater threat.[36][37]
After losing control of Fort Pitt, Dickens and his men retreated to the safety of Battleford, effectively ending Dickens active duty with the NWMP. Dickens was employed as a justice of the peace and presided over some of the preliminary hearings for the rebels. In 1886, he left the employment of government and moved to the United States with the intentions of completing a lecture tour. Dickens died on 11 June of a suspected heart attack before the tour began.
W.J. McLean – Fort Pitt supervisor during uprising
W.J. McLean was a chief trader who was responsible for the supervision of Fort Pitt beginning in 1884. He had previously served twenty years with the company at various locations. His wife Helen was born at Fort Dunvegan and was partly of aboriginal ancestry. There were eight McLean children, and in the spring of 1885 Helen McLean was expecting another child. The three eldest McLean sisters, Amelia, Eliza, and Kitty, were all well educated, having attended school at Red River, but they could also ride, shoot, and were fluent in Cree and Saulteaux. Following the Massacre at Frog Lake, Fort Pitt's population dramatically increased as people from surrounding districts sought protection there, some with the assistance of Aboriginal associates. There were 23 NWMP stationed at the fort under the command of Francis Dickens. These included many police members who were evacuated from Frog Lake. On 14 April, when Big Bear and his Plains Cree party assembled on the banks overlooking the fort, they specifically asked to speak to McLean, who was on friendly terms with these people and believed that he did not have to fear for himself or his family. Lengthy discussions lasted two days; however, violence broke out when the Cree thought themselves to be under attack. In statements made later, McLean never hesitated to lay the blame for this on the poor judgment of Inspector Dickens, who, the day before, sent out two NWMP and one civilian to gather information on the whereabouts of Aboriginal groups. Their sudden appearance led the Cree to believe that they were under attack. Three Crees were killed during the confrontation along with one of the NWMP members. During this event, all the inhabitants of Fort Pitt except the remaining NWMP, agreed to evacuate the fort, and become part of Big Bear's camp.[38]
There was a great deal of unease surrounding the European settlers and the Indigenous population during the mid-1880s. Fort Pitt was no exception. There are, however, examples given that suggest that the relationship between the European settlers, and the Cree were different than the relations of the time in other areas. There was a great deal of violence in the areas surrounding Fort Pitt; however, this was not necessarily the case within the fort itself. Many accounts of the violence state that it was a "settling of personal scores" and many of the land owners in the surrounding area were targeted due to their past relationships with the Indigenous population. This resentment and anger was not directed at the European settlers as a whole but, rather specific members of the population, as well as government. Some historians state that "many of the killings were the settling of personal scores."[39] They also reference situations such as Bill Waiser, where in his book A World We Have Lost: Saskatchewan Before 1905 he provides some insight into the events at Fort Pitt. The author provides evidence that the relationship between the NWMP at Fort Pitt and the Cree was not as hostile as often thought.
"Had the plains Cree been truly hostile and intended on waging war, they would have attacked the fort almost immediately and not given the police any time to try and fortify their position. That they waited several days confirmed that the murders were unpremeditated and that this new action was largely motivated by the need for food and previsions for their large camp."[40]
Daschuk also states that "police officers at Fort Pitt we spared in recognition of their humanity" further suggesting that the relationships may not have been as resentful as other areas.[39]
1885 rebellion
The only loss of European life at the hands of the Cree during the capture of Fort Pitt came when the search party sent out by Dickens accidentally rode their horses through a Cree camp. The surprised Cree engaged in a brief fire fight fearing that this was an attack by the NWMP. In the attack, David Cowan was fatally wounded, and Constable Lawrence Loasby was wounded but managed to escape only to be captured a short time later. A third NWMP officer was captured but not injured. This is one of the events that influenced Dickens to initiate his retreat, leaving the fort vacant of NWMP and surrendering to the Cree's occupation of the fort with minimal resistance.[41][39] There were also three Cree who lost their lives in this brief battle.[22][42]
Dickens was also persuaded by the threat that the Cree may simply set the fort on fire instead of attack it.
"The Indians told Mclean they wouldn't even need to attack the fort. They had brought 40 gallons[lower-alpha 1] of coal oil from Frog lake, more than enough to set the small stockade and the building it contained ablaze"[42]
On 17 April 1885, the members of the Mistahimaskwa Cree Nation effectively took control of Fort Pitt and successfully negotiated the evacuation of the NWMP. The members of the Mistahimaskwa Cree Nation successfully maintained control of Fort Pitt until 2 July 1885 when they surrendered to the NWMP.[43]
After the police force was dispatched from the fort the remaining men, women, and children were given the choice to either leave the fort or stay as "hostages" the majority chose to stay. By most recorded accounts, they were treated with relative dignity and respect. This further promotes the idea put forth by Waiser that this movement on Fort Pitt was not intended as an act of pure aggression, but one created out of the necessity to feed themselves and gain adequate supplies.[15]
During the second sacking of Fort Pitt on 9 April, the Cree under the orders of Wandering Spirit raided the remaining resources and set fire to the fort, destroying all but one of the service buildings.[44]
On 26 May, a mounted column arrived at Fort Pitt to see the remains still smouldering in the aftermath of the Cree raid. The members of the column were "sobered by the discovery of the body of Constable David Cowan, his heart removed and placed on a nearby pole."[45] Fort Pitt's location and the fact that it was situated at the divergence of many trails led the column to reclaiming it setting up headquarters.[45][34]
The actions of the Cree warriors at Fort Pitt as well as other locations such as Frog lake during the Rebellion of 1885 were contributing factors in the government's creation of the Alberta Field Force on 20 April 1885. The Alberta Field Force consisted of one thousand men, and was tasked with ending the rebellion and returning peace to the land. They marched unimpeded from Calgary east meeting their first significant resistance upon arrival in the Fort Pitt region. The Alberta Field Force encountered and interrupted a group of Cree performing a thirst dance, in which the Cree were searching for spiritual guidance. This was happening at the base of Frenchman Butte. This encounter and the violent outbreak afterwards would be described as "one of the most indecisive skirmishes during the tragedy of 1885."[34]
Frenchman Butte is located 18 kilometres (11mi) north-west of Fort Pitt, and it is a significant historical site for the role it played in the Battle of Batoche. It was at this location that the Alberta Field Force marched upon the some of Big Bear's Cree while they were participating in a thirst dance after leaving Fort Pitt. The Alberta Field Forces interruption of the thirst dance lead to the retreat of the Cree to the rifle pits throughout the plains. "Big Bear's soldiers installed themselves in deep rifle pits above the surrounding plains."[46] The short Battle of Frenchman's Butte occurred, but soon after it began, the Canadian Militia realized that Big Bear's men had the superior tactical position, and they were forced to retreat to the safety of Fort Pitt, while Big Bear's men retreated in the opposite direction startled by the firepower of the Alberta Field Force.[46]
Post North-West Rebellion history
The next September, the fort was rebuilt by Angus McKay. In 1887, a branch post was built at Onion Lake about 32 kilometres (20mi) to the north-west. In 1890, everything was moved to Onion Lake, and Fort Pitt was closed.
In 1944, Fort Pitt was sold to a local rancher, Robert Henry Hougham (1889-1960), with the intent to cultivate the land for agricultural purposes. On the commencement of land cultivation, Hougham discovered shallow graves located in close proximity to the remains of the original fort. It is unknown at this time the specifics surrounding the remains as many of the tombstones and other identifying landmarks were destroyed during the fires and rebellion in 1885. Hougham reconstructed one of the early structures and worked the land for 16 years until his death in 1960. He was buried on the property near a stone cairn that had been erected at the site in 1954.[47]
In 1954, Fort Pitt was designated a national historic site of Canada. According to the Parks Canada Directory of Federal Heritage Designations, the significance of Fort Pitt to Canadian heritage is "the Hudson's Bay Company built the post to trade in buffalo hides, meat and pemmican; It was the site of the signing of Treaty No. 6 in 1876; and, it was burned during the 1885 rebellion by Big Bear's followers after the police had withdrawn to Battleford."[citation needed]
In 1986, approximately 10.4ha (26 acres) of land surrounding the remains of Fort Pitt was designated as a provincial park by the government of Saskatchewan.[2] Fort Pitt Provincial Park is located several kilometres east of Harlan, and roughly 5 kilometres (3.1mi) north-west of Hewitt Landing, in western Saskatchewan. It is accessed off Highway 797.
The historical site itself consists of the architectural remains of two of the forts that were located in the area. They have been partially excavated and presented for interpretive purposes. The outlines of the first two forts are also visible, as well as one reconstructed building designed in accordance with the second fort.[48]
In the park, there is access to the archaeological remains of two forts, the North Saskatchewan River, and a picnic area. It also features geotracking as a recreational activity. The park is a museum and a provincial heritage property.[49]
The North-West Rebellion, also known as the North-West Resistance, was an armed resistance movement by the Métis under Louis Riel and an associated uprising by First Nations Cree and Assiniboine of the District of Saskatchewan against the Canadian government. Many Métis felt that Canada was not protecting their rights, their land, and their survival as a distinct people.
The Blackfoot Confederacy, Niitsitapi, or Siksikaitsitapi, is a historic collective name for linguistically related groups that make up the Blackfoot or Blackfeet people: the Siksika ("Blackfoot"), the Kainai or Blood, and two sections of the Peigan or Piikani – the Northern Piikani (Aapátohsipikáni) and the Southern Piikani. Broader definitions include groups such as the Tsúùtínà (Sarcee) and A'aninin who spoke quite different languages but allied with or joined the Blackfoot Confederacy.
Big Bear, also known as Mistahi-maskwa, was a powerful and popular Cree chief who played many pivotal roles in Canadian history. He was appointed to chief of his band at the age of 40 upon the death of his father, Black Powder, under his father's harmonious and inclusive rule which directly impacted his own leadership. Big Bear is most notable for his involvement in Treaty 6 and the 1885 North-West Rebellion; he was one of the few chief leaders who objected to the signing of the treaty with the Canadian government. He felt that signing the treaty would ultimately have devastating effects on his nation as well as other Indigenous nations. This included losing the free nomadic lifestyle that his nation and others were accustomed to. Big Bear also took part in one of the last major battles between the Cree and the Blackfoot nations. He was one of the leaders to lead his people in the last, largest battle on the Canadian Plains.
The Battle of Frenchman's Butte, fought on May 28, 1885, occurred when a force of Cree, dug in on a hillside near Frenchman's Butte, was unsuccessfully attacked by the Alberta Field Force. It was fought in what was then the District of Saskatchewan of the North-West Territories.
Pîhtokahanapiwiyin, also known as Poundmaker, was a Plains Cree chief known as a peacemaker and defender of his people, the Poundmaker Cree Nation. His name denotes his special craft at leading buffalo into buffalo pounds (enclosures) for harvest.
Crowfoot or Isapo-Muxika was a chief of the Siksika First Nation. His father, Istowun-eh'pata, and mother, Axkahp-say-pi, were Kainai. He was five years old when Istowun-eh'pata was killed during a raid on the Crow tribe, and, a year later, his mother remarried to Akay-nehka-simi of the Siksika people among whom he was brought up. Crowfoot was a warrior who fought in as many as nineteen battles and sustained many injuries, but he tried to obtain peace instead of warfare. Crowfoot is well known for his involvement in Treaty Number 7 and did much negotiating for his people. While many believe Chief Crowfoot had no part in the North-West Rebellion, he did in fact participate to an extent due to his son's connection to the conflict. Crowfoot died of tuberculosis at Blackfoot Crossing on April 25, 1890. Eight hundred of his tribe attended his funeral, along with government dignitaries. In 2008, Chief Crowfoot was inducted into the North America Railway Hall of Fame where he was recognized for his contributions to the railway industry. Crowfoot is well known for his contributions to the Blackfoot nation, and has many memorials to signify his accomplishments.
The Assiniboine or Assiniboin people, also known as the Hohe and known by the endonym Nakota, are a First Nations/Native American people originally from the Northern Great Plains of North America.
First Nations in Alberta are a group of people who live in the Canadian province of Alberta. The First Nations are peoples recognized as Indigenous peoples or Plains Indians in Canada excluding the Inuit and the Métis. According to the 2011 Census, a population of 116,670 Albertans self-identified as First Nations. Specifically there were 96,730 First Nations people with registered Indian Status and 19,945 First Nations people without registered Indian Status. Alberta has the third largest First Nations population among the provinces and territories. From this total population, 47.3% of the population lives on an Indian reserve and the other 52.7% live in urban centres. According to the 2011 Census, the First Nations population in Edmonton totalled at 31,780, which is the second highest for any city in Canada. The First Nations population in Calgary, in reference to the 2011 Census, totalled at 17,040. There are 48 First Nations or "bands" in Alberta, belonging to nine different ethnic groups or "tribes" based on their ancestral languages.
Treaty 6 is the sixth of the numbered treaties that were signed by the Canadian Crown and various First Nations between 1871 and 1877. It is one of a total of 11 numbered treaties signed between the Canadian Crown and First Nations. Specifically, Treaty 6 is an agreement between the Crown and the Plains and Woods Cree, Assiniboine, and other band governments at Fort Carlton and Fort Pitt. Key figures, representing the Crown, involved in the negotiations were Alexander Morris, Lieutenant Governor of Manitoba and The North-West Territories; James McKay, The Minister of Agriculture for Manitoba; and William J. Christie, a chief factor of the Hudson's Bay Company. Chief Mistawasis and Chief Ahtahkakoop represented the Carlton Cree.
The Battle of Fort Pitt was part of a Cree uprising coinciding with the Métis revolt that started the North-West Rebellion in 1885. Cree warriors began attacking Canadian settlements on April 2. On April 15, they captured Fort Pitt from a detachment of North-West Mounted Police.
The Frog Lake Massacre was part of the Cree uprising during the North-West Rebellion in western Canada. Led by Wandering Spirit, young Cree men attacked officials, clergy and settlers in the small settlement of Frog Lake in the District of Saskatchewan in the North-West Territories on 2 April 1885. Nine settlers were killed in the incident.
Wandering Spirit was a war chief of a band of Plains Cree. There is little information on Wandering Spirit's life. Most of what is known begins shortly before the 1885 Frog Lake Massacre and ends with the Canadian justice system's convicting him of murder and hanging him. However, there is some information regarding his role within the Plains Cree people.
Francis Jeffrey Dickens was the third son and fifth child of Victorian English novelist Charles Dickens and his wife Catherine Dickens née Hogarth.
Saskatchewan River fur trade The Saskatchewan River was one of the two main axes of Canadian expansion west of Lake Winnipeg. The other and more important one was northwest to the Athabasca Country. For background see Canadian canoe routes (early). The main trade route followed the North Saskatchewan River and Saskatchewan River, which were just south of the forested beaver country. The South Saskatchewan River was a prairie river with few furs.
The Iron Confederacy or Iron Confederation was a political and military alliance of Plains Indians of what is now Western Canada and the northern United States. This confederacy included various individual bands that formed political, hunting and military alliances in defense against common enemies. The ethnic groups that made up the Confederacy were the branches of the Cree that moved onto the Great Plains around 1740, the Saulteaux, the Nakoda or Stoney people also called Pwat or Assiniboine, and the Métis and Haudenosaunee. The Confederacy rose to predominance on the northern Plains during the height of the North American fur trade when they operated as middlemen controlling the flow of European goods, particularly guns and ammunition, to other Indigenous nations, and the flow of furs to the Hudson's Bay Company (HBC) and North West Company (NWC) trading posts. Its peoples later also played a major part in the bison (buffalo) hunt, and the pemmican trade. The decline of the fur trade and the collapse of the bison herds sapped the power of the Confederacy after the 1860s, and it could no longer act as a barrier to U.S. and Canadian expansion.
Sweet Grass was a chief of the Cree in the 1860s and 1870s in western Canada. He worked with other chiefs and bands to participate in raids with enemy tribes. While a chief, Sweet Grass noticed the starvation and economic hardship the Cree were facing. This propelled him to work with the Canadian and eventually sign Treaty Six. Sweet Grass believed that working alongside the government was one of the only solutions to the daily hardship the Cree were faced with. The Sweet Grass Reserve west of Battleford, Saskatchewan was named in his honor and is still functioning today.
The pass system was a segregationist policy by the Canadian Department of Indian Affairs (DIA), first initiated on a significant scale in the region that became the three prairie provinces in the wake of the 1885 North-West Rebellion—as part of a series of highly restrictive measures—to confine Indigenous people to Indian reserves—newly-established through the numbered treaties. The "Indian pass system"—introduced as a temporary emergency measure to quell First Nations resistance—was formalized and became permanent under successive federal governments. In archived correspondence between the three federal officials who were the "most prominent in the development and implementation of Indian policy" in the 1880s and 1890s—John A. Macdonald (1815–1891), Edgar Dewdney (1835–1916), and Hayter Reed (1849–1936), it was evident that they were all cognizant of the lack of a legal basis for the pass system, and that it did not respect treaty agreements.
Lawrence Vankoughnet was an agent with Canada's Department of Indian Affairs in the late 19th century. Vankoughnet moved quickly up the ranks of the DIA, beginning as a clerk with family connections to prime minister John A. Macdonald. From chief civil servant to deputy superintendent, Lawrence accomplished a lot when he was present. After a 3-month sick leave for a "disordered nervous system", he wasted little time picking up where he left off. Vankoughnet was noted by many historians to be the man who cut costs on the rations the government supplied to the reserves. Despite only visiting the reserves once, where he was reluctant to socialize with the chiefs, Vankoughnet announced his change of policy plans in Battleford shortly afterwards: Indians would only be supplied with rations if they were unable to sustain themselves. Vankoughnet’s goals as deputy superintendent of the DIA was to keep costs to a minimum. He thought that so long as they were supplying reserve peoples with rations, they would remain dependent on the government and therefore a significant burden to their expenditures.
Mistawasis was a Chief of the Sak-kaw-wen-o-wak Plains Cree, notable for his role as the leader of his people during the signing of Treaty 6 in 1876, to which he was the first signatory. Due to the dwindling buffalo population caused by excessive hunting, he was forced to look for new strategies to ensure the survival of his people and their culture. He believed the only way to save his people was to negotiate with the Canadian Government. As a result of his strong influence over the Cree people, he and his close ally Ahtahkakoop were able to argue successfully for the adoption of Treaty 6 by his fellow Cree. After the treaty was signed he remained an ally of the Canadian government until his death.
The Little Pine First Nation is a Plains Cree First Nations band government in Saskatchewan, Canada. Their reserves include:
↑ "Provincial Parks". The Encyclopedia of Saskatchewan. University of Regina. Archived from the original on 20 September 2022. Retrieved 20 September 2022.
↑ Daschuk, James (2019). Clearing the Plains: Disease, Politics of Starvation, and the Loss of Indigenous Life. Regina, Saskatchewan: University of Regina Press. p.65. ISBN9780889776227.
↑ Clancy, Michael, Anna (2006). A User's Guide to Saskatchewan Parks. Regina Saskatchewan: University of Regina. pp.241, 242. ISBN978-0-88977-198-7.{{cite book}}: CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link)
↑ Parsons, Vic (2013). Lesser Expectations: Charles Dickens' in North America. Victoria British Columbia: Friesen Press. p.197. ISBN978-1-4602-1438-1.
↑ Gowanlock, Theresa (1885). Two Months in the Camp of Big Bear. Toronto Ontario: Times Office.
1 2 3 Daschuk, James (2013). CLEARING THE PLAINS DISEASE, POLITICS OF STARVATION, AND THE LOSS OF ABORIGINAL LIFE. Regina Saskatchewan: University of Regina Press. pp.65, 86, 96, 131, 150, 155. ISBN978-0-88977-296-0.
↑ Waiser, Bill (2016). A World We Have Lost Saskatchewan Before 1905. Markham Ontario: Fifth House. pp.552, 553. ISBN978-1-927083-39-0.
↑ White, Hulgaard, William, John (2002). Honoured in Places: Remembered Mounties Across Canada. Surrey British Columbia: Heritage House Publishing Co. p.210. ISBN978-1-894384-39-1.{{cite book}}: CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link)
1 2 Beal,Macloed, Bob,Rod (1984). Prairie Fire The 1885 North-West Rebellio. Edmonton: Hurtig Publishers. pp.205–219. ISBN978-0-88830-262-5.{{cite book}}: CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link)
↑ Stewart, Shannon (2007). Louis Riel Friebrand. Montreal Quebec: XYZ publishing. p.183.
1 2 Tolton, Gordon (2007). Prairie Warships: River Navigation in the Northwest Rebellion. Surrey British Columbia: Heritage House Publishing Co. pp.112, 113. ISBN978-1-894974-30-1.
1 2 Friesen, Gerald (1987). THE CANADIAN PRAiRIES. Canada: University of Toronto Press.
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