Plant hormone

Last updated
Lack of the plant hormone auxin can cause abnormal growth (right) Auxin.jpg
Lack of the plant hormone auxin can cause abnormal growth (right)

Plant hormones (or phytohormones) are signal molecules, produced within plants, that occur in extremely low concentrations. Plant hormones control all aspects of plant growth and development, including embryogenesis, [1] the regulation of organ size, pathogen defense, [2] [3] stress tolerance [4] [5] and reproductive development. [6] Unlike in animals (in which hormone production is restricted to specialized glands) each plant cell is capable of producing hormones. [7] [8] Went and Thimann coined the term "phytohormone" and used it in the title of their 1937 book. [9]

Contents

Phytohormones occur across the plant kingdom, and even in algae, where they have similar functions to those seen in vascular plants ("higher plants"). [10] Some phytohormones also occur in microorganisms, such as unicellular fungi and bacteria, however in these cases they do not play a hormonal role and can better be regarded as secondary metabolites. [11]

Characteristics

Phyllody on a purple coneflower (Echinacea purpurea), a plant development abnormality where leaf-like structures replace flower organs. It can be caused by hormonal imbalance, among other reasons. Phyllody on Coneflower with aster yellows.jpg
Phyllody on a purple coneflower (Echinacea purpurea), a plant development abnormality where leaf-like structures replace flower organs. It can be caused by hormonal imbalance, among other reasons.

The word hormone is derived from Greek, meaning set in motion. Plant hormones affect gene expression and transcription levels, cellular division, and growth. They are naturally produced within plants, though very similar chemicals are produced by fungi and bacteria that can also affect plant growth. [12] A large number of related chemical compounds are synthesized by humans. They are used to regulate the growth of cultivated plants, weeds, and in vitro-grown plants and plant cells; these manmade compounds are called plant growth regulators (PGRs). Early in the study of plant hormones, "phytohormone" was the commonly used term, but its use is less widely applied now.

Plant hormones are not nutrients, but chemicals that in small amounts promote and influence the growth, [13] development, and differentiation of cells and tissues. The biosynthesis of plant hormones within plant tissues is often diffuse and not always localized. Plants lack glands to produce and store hormones, because, unlike animals—which have two circulatory systems (lymphatic and cardiovascular) powered by a heart that moves fluids around the body—plants use more passive means to move chemicals around their bodies. Plants utilize simple chemicals as hormones, which move more easily through their tissues. They are often produced and used on a local basis within the plant body. Plant cells produce hormones that affect even different regions of the cell producing the hormone.

Hormones are transported within the plant by utilizing four types of movements. For localized movement, cytoplasmic streaming within cells and slow diffusion of ions and molecules between cells are utilized. Vascular tissues are used to move hormones from one part of the plant to another; these include sieve tubes or phloem that move sugars from the leaves to the roots and flowers, and xylem that moves water and mineral solutes from the roots to the foliage.

Not all plant cells respond to hormones, but those cells that do are programmed to respond at specific points in their growth cycle. The greatest effects occur at specific stages during the cell's life, with diminished effects occurring before or after this period. Plants need hormones at very specific times during plant growth and at specific locations. They also need to disengage the effects that hormones have when they are no longer needed. The production of hormones occurs very often at sites of active growth within the meristems, before cells have fully differentiated. After production, they are sometimes moved to other parts of the plant, where they cause an immediate effect; or they can be stored in cells to be released later. Plants use different pathways to regulate internal hormone quantities and moderate their effects; they can regulate the amount of chemicals used to biosynthesize hormones. They can store them in cells, inactivate them, or cannibalise already-formed hormones by conjugating them with carbohydrates, amino acids, or peptides. Plants can also break down hormones chemically, effectively destroying them. Plant hormones frequently regulate the concentrations of other plant hormones. [14] Plants also move hormones around the plant diluting their concentrations.

The concentration of hormones required for plant responses are very low (10−6 to 10−5 mol/L). Because of these low concentrations, it has been very difficult to study plant hormones, and only since the late 1970s have scientists been able to start piecing together their effects and relationships to plant physiology. [15] Much of the early work on plant hormones involved studying plants that were genetically deficient in one or involved the use of tissue-cultured plants grown in vitro that were subjected to differing ratios of hormones, and the resultant growth compared. The earliest scientific observation and study dates to the 1880s; the determination and observation of plant hormones and their identification was spread out over the next 70 years.

Synergism in plant hormones refers to the how of two or more hormones result in an effect that is more than the individual effects. For example, auxins and cytokinins often act in cooperation during cellular division and differentiation. Both hormones are key to cell cycle regulation, but when they come together, their synergistic interactions can enhance cell proliferation and organogenesis more effectively than either could in isolation.

Classes

Different hormones can be sorted into different classes, depending on their chemical structures. Within each class of hormone, chemical structures can vary, but all members of the same class have similar physiological effects. Initial research into plant hormones identified five major classes: abscisic acid, auxins, brassinosteroids, cytokinins and ethylene. [16] This list was later expanded, and brassinosteroids, jasmonates, salicylic acid, and strigolactones are now also considered major plant hormones. Additionally there are several other compounds that serve functions similar to the major hormones, but their status as bona fide hormones is still debated.

Abscisic acid

Abscisic acid Abscisic acid.svg
Abscisic acid

Abscisic acid (also called ABA) is one of the most important plant growth inhibitors. It was discovered and researched under two different names, dormin and abscicin II, before its chemical properties were fully known. Once it was determined that the two compounds are the same, it was named abscisic acid. The name refers to the fact that it is found in high concentrations in newly abscissed or freshly fallen leaves.

This class of PGR is composed of one chemical compound normally produced in the leaves of plants, originating from chloroplasts, especially when plants are under stress. In general, it acts as an inhibitory chemical compound that affects bud growth, and seed and bud dormancy. It mediates changes within the apical meristem, causing bud dormancy and the alteration of the last set of leaves into protective bud covers. Since it was found in freshly abscissed leaves, it was initially thought to play a role in the processes of natural leaf drop, but further research has disproven this. In plant species from temperate parts of the world, abscisic acid plays a role in leaf and seed dormancy by inhibiting growth, but, as it is dissipated from seeds or buds, growth begins. In other plants, as ABA levels decrease, growth then commences as gibberellin levels increase. Without ABA, buds and seeds would start to grow during warm periods in winter and would be killed when it froze again. Since ABA dissipates slowly from the tissues and its effects take time to be offset by other plant hormones, there is a delay in physiological pathways that provides some protection from premature growth. Abscisic acid accumulates within seeds during fruit maturation, preventing seed germination within the fruit or before winter. Abscisic acid's effects are degraded within plant tissues during cold temperatures or by its removal by water washing in and out of the tissues, releasing the seeds and buds from dormancy. [17]

ABA exists in all parts of the plant, and its concentration within any tissue seems to mediate its effects and function as a hormone; its degradation, or more properly catabolism, within the plant affects metabolic reactions and cellular growth and production of other hormones. [18] Plants start life as a seed with high ABA levels. Just before the seed germinates, ABA levels decrease; during germination and early growth of the seedling, ABA levels decrease even more. As plants begin to produce shoots with fully functional leaves, ABA levels begin to increase again, slowing down cellular growth in more "mature" areas of the plant. Stress from water or predation affects ABA production and catabolism rates, mediating another cascade of effects that trigger specific responses from targeted cells. Scientists are still piecing together the complex interactions and effects of this and other phytohormones.

In plants under water stress, ABA plays a role in closing the stomata. Soon after plants are water-stressed and the roots are deficient in water, a signal moves up to the leaves, causing the formation of ABA precursors there, which then move to the roots. The roots then release ABA, which is translocated to the foliage through the vascular system [19] and modulates potassium and sodium uptake within the guard cells, which then lose turgidity, closing the stomata. [20] [21]

Auxins

The auxin, indole-3-acetic acid Indol-3-ylacetic acid.svg
The auxin, indole-3-acetic acid

Auxins are compounds that positively influence cell enlargement, bud formation, and root initiation. They also promote the production of other hormones and, in conjunction with cytokinins, control the growth of stems, roots, and fruits, and convert stems into flowers. [22] Auxins were the first class of growth regulators discovered. A Dutch Biologist Frits Warmolt Went first described auxins. [23] They affect cell elongation by altering cell wall plasticity. They stimulate cambium, a subtype of meristem cells, to divide, and in stems cause secondary xylem to differentiate.

Auxins act to inhibit the growth of buds lower down the stems in a phenomenon known as apical dominance, and also to promote lateral and adventitious root development and growth. Leaf abscission is initiated by the growing point of a plant ceasing to produce auxins. Auxins in seeds regulate specific protein synthesis, [24] as they develop within the flower after pollination, causing the flower to develop a fruit to contain the developing seeds.

In large concentrations, auxins are often toxic to plants; they are most toxic to dicots and less so to monocots. Because of this property, synthetic auxin herbicides including 2,4-dichlorophenoxyacetic acid (2,4-D) and 2,4,5-trichlorophenoxyacetic acid (2,4,5-T) have been developed and used for weed control by defoliation. Auxins, especially 1-naphthaleneacetic acid (NAA) and indole-3-butyric acid (IBA), are also commonly applied to stimulate root growth when taking cuttings of plants. The most common auxin found in plants is indole-3-acetic acid (IAA).

Brassinosteroids

Brassinolide, a major brassinosteroid Brassinolide.png
Brassinolide, a major brassinosteroid

Brassinosteroids (BRs) are a class of polyhydroxysteroids, the only example of steroid-based hormones in plants. Brassinosteroids control cell elongation and division, gravitropism, resistance to stress, and xylem differentiation. They inhibit root growth and leaf abscission. Brassinolide was the first brassinosteroid to be identified and was isolated from extracts of rapeseed ( Brassica napus ) pollen in 1979. [25] Brassinosteroids are a class of steroidal phytohormones in plants that regulate numerous physiological processes. This plant hormone was identified by Mitchell et al. who extracted ingredients from Brassica pollen only to find that the extracted ingredients’ main active component was Brassinolide. [26] This finding meant the discovery of a new class of plant hormones called Brassinosteroids. These hormones act very similarly to animal steroidal hormones by promoting growth and development.

In plants these steroidal hormones play an important role in cell elongation via BR signaling. [27] The brassinosteroids receptor brassinosteroid insensitive 1 (BRI1) is the main receptor for this signaling pathway. This BRI1 receptor was found by Clouse et al. who made the discovery by inhibiting BR and comparing it to the wildtype in Arabidopsis. The BRI1 mutant displayed several problems associated with growth and development such as dwarfism, reduced cell elongation and other physical alterations. [26] These findings mean that plants properly expressing brassinosteroids grow more than their mutant counterparts. Brassinosteroids bind to BRI1 localized at the plasma membrane [28] which leads to a signal cascade that further regulates cell elongation. This signal cascade however is not entirely understood at this time. What is believed to be happening is that BR binds to the BAK1 complex which leads to a phosphorylation cascade. [29] This phosphorylation cascade then causes BIN2 to be deactivated which causes the release of transcription factors. [29] These released transcription factors then bind to DNA that leads to growth and developmental processes [29] and allows plants to respond to abiotic stressors. [30]

Cytokinins

Zeatin, a cytokinin Zeatin.png
Zeatin, a cytokinin

Cytokinins (CKs) are a group of chemicals that influence cell division and shoot formation. They also help delay senescence of tissues, are responsible for mediating auxin transport throughout the plant, and affect internodal length and leaf growth. They were called kinins in the past when they were first isolated from yeast cells. Cytokinins and auxins often work together, and the ratios of these two groups of plant hormones affect most major growth periods during a plant's lifetime. Cytokinins counter the apical dominance induced by auxins; in conjunction with ethylene, they promote abscission of leaves, flower parts, and fruits. [31]

Among the plant hormones, the three that are known to help with immunological interactions are ethylene (ET), salicylates (SA), and jasmonates (JA), however more research has gone into identifying the role that cytokinins play in this. Evidence suggests that cytokinins delay the interactions with pathogens, showing signs that they could induce resistance toward these pathogenic bacteria. Accordingly, there are higher CK levels in plants that have increased resistance to pathogens compared to those which are more susceptible. [32] For example, pathogen resistance involving cytokinins was tested using the Arabidopsis species by treating them with naturally occurring CK (trans-zeatin) to see their response to the bacteria Pseudomonas syringa. Tobacco studies reveal that over expression of CK inducing IPT genes yields increased resistance whereas over expression of CK oxidase yields increased susceptibility to pathogen, namely P. syringae.

While there’s not much of a relationship between this hormone and physical plant behavior, there are behavioral changes that go on inside the plant in response to it.  Cytokinin defense effects can include the establishment and growth of microbes (delay leaf senescence), reconfiguration of secondary metabolism or even induce the production of new organs such as galls or nodules. [33] These organs and their corresponding processes are all used to protect the plants against biotic/abiotic factors.

Ethylene

Ethylene Ethene-2D-flat.png
Ethylene

Unlike the other major plant hormones, ethylene is a gas and a very simple organic compound, consisting of just six atoms. It forms through the breakdown of methionine, an amino acid which is in all cells. Ethylene has very limited solubility in water and therefore does not accumulate within the cell, typically diffusing out of the cell and escaping the plant. Its effectiveness as a plant hormone is dependent on its rate of production versus its rate of escaping into the atmosphere. Ethylene is produced at a faster rate in rapidly growing and dividing cells, especially in darkness. New growth and newly germinated seedlings produce more ethylene than can escape the plant, which leads to elevated amounts of ethylene, inhibiting leaf expansion (see hyponastic response).

As the new shoot is exposed to light, reactions mediated by phytochrome in the plant's cells produce a signal for ethylene production to decrease, allowing leaf expansion. Ethylene affects cell growth and cell shape; when a growing shoot or root hits an obstacle while underground, ethylene production greatly increases, preventing cell elongation and causing the stem to swell. The resulting thicker stem is stronger and less likely to buckle under pressure as it presses against the object impeding its path to the surface. If the shoot does not reach the surface and the ethylene stimulus becomes prolonged, it affects the stem's natural geotropic response, which is to grow upright, allowing it to grow around an object. Studies seem to indicate that ethylene affects stem diameter and height: when stems of trees are subjected to wind, causing lateral stress, greater ethylene production occurs, resulting in thicker, sturdier tree trunks and branches.

Ethylene also affects fruit ripening. Normally, when the seeds are mature, ethylene production increases and builds up within the fruit, resulting in a climacteric event just before seed dispersal. The nuclear protein Ethylene Insensitive2 (EIN2) is regulated by ethylene production, and, in turn, regulates other hormones including ABA and stress hormones. [34] Ethylene diffusion out of plants is strongly inhibited underwater. This increases internal concentrations of the gas. In numerous aquatic and semi-aquatic species (e.g. Callitriche platycarpus, rice, and Rumex palustris ), the accumulated ethylene strongly stimulates upward elongation. This response is an important mechanism for the adaptive escape from submergence that avoids asphyxiation by returning the shoot and leaves to contact with the air whilst allowing the release of entrapped ethylene. [35] [36] [37] [38] At least one species ( Potamogeton pectinatus ) [39] has been found to be incapable of making ethylene while retaining a conventional morphology. This suggests ethylene is a true regulator rather than being a requirement for building a plant's basic body plan.

Gibberellins

Gibberellin A1 Gibberellin A1.svg
Gibberellin A1

Gibberellins (GAs) include a large range of chemicals that are produced naturally within plants and by fungi. They were first discovered when Japanese researchers, including Eiichi Kurosawa, noticed a chemical produced by a fungus called Gibberella fujikuroi that produced abnormal growth in rice plants. [40] It was later discovered that GAs are also produced by the plants themselves and control multiple aspects of development across the life cycle. The synthesis of GA is strongly upregulated in seeds at germination and its presence is required for germination to occur. In seedlings and adults, GAs strongly promote cell elongation. GAs also promote the transition between vegetative and reproductive growth and are also required for pollen function during fertilization. [41]

Gibberellins breaks the dormancy (in active stage) in seeds and buds and helps increasing the height of the plant. It helps in the growth of the stem[ citation needed ]

Jasmonates

Jasmonic acid Jasmonic acid.svg
Jasmonic acid

Jasmonates (JAs) are lipid-based hormones that were originally isolated from jasmine oil. [42] JAs are especially important in the plant response to attack from herbivores and necrotrophic pathogens. [43] The most active JA in plants is jasmonic acid. Jasmonic acid can be further metabolized into methyl jasmonate (MeJA), which is a volatile organic compound. This unusual property means that MeJA can act as an airborne signal to communicate herbivore attack to other distant leaves within one plant and even as a signal to neighboring plants. [44] In addition to their role in defense, JAs are also believed to play roles in seed germination, the storage of protein in seeds, and root growth. [43]

JAs have been shown to interact in the signalling pathway of other hormones in a mechanism described as “crosstalk.” The hormone classes can have both negative and positive effects on each other's signal processes. [45]

Jasmonic acid methyl ester (JAME) has been shown to regulate genetic expression in plants. [46] They act in signalling pathways in response to herbivory, and upregulate expression of defense genes. [47] Jasmonyl-isoleucine (JA-Ile) accumulates in response to herbivory, which causes an upregulation in defense gene expression by freeing up transcription factors. [47]

Jasmonate mutants are more readily consumed by herbivores than wild type plants, indicating that JAs play an important role in the execution of plant defense. When herbivores are moved around leaves of wild type plants, they reach similar masses to herbivores that consume only mutant plants, implying the effects of JAs are localized to sites of herbivory. [48] Studies have shown that there is significant crosstalk between defense pathways. [49]

Salicylic acid

Salicylic acid 2-hydroxybenzoic acid 200.svg
Salicylic acid

Salicylic acid (SA) is a hormone with a structure related to benzoic acid and phenol. It was originally isolated from an extract of white willow bark (Salix alba) and is of great interest to human medicine, as it is the precursor of the painkiller aspirin. In plants, SA plays a critical role in the defense against biotrophic pathogens. In a similar manner to JA, SA can also become methylated. Like MeJA, methyl salicylate is volatile and can act as a long-distance signal to neighboring plants to warn of pathogen attack. In addition to its role in defense, SA is also involved in the response of plants to abiotic stress, particularly from drought, extreme temperatures, heavy metals, and osmotic stress. [50]

Salicylic acid (SA) serves as a key hormone in plant innate immunity, including resistance in both local and systemic tissue upon biotic attacks, hypersensitive responses, and cell death. Some of the SA influences on plants include seed germination, cell growth, respiration, stomatal closure, senescence-associated gene expression, responses to abiotic and biotic stresses, basal thermo tolerance and fruit yield. A possible role of salicylic acid in signaling disease resistance was first demonstrated by injecting leaves of resistant tobacco with SA. [51] The result was that injecting SA stimulated pathogenesis related (PR) protein accumulation and enhanced resistance to tobacco mosaic virus (TMV) infection. Exposure to pathogens causes a cascade of reactions in the plant cells. SA biosynthesis is increased via isochorismate synthase (ICS) and phenylalanine ammonia-lyase (PAL) pathway in plastids. [52] It was observed that during plant-microbe interactions, as part of the defense mechanisms, SA is initially accumulated at the local infected tissue and then spread all over the plant to induce systemic acquired resistance at non-infected distal parts of the plant. Therefore with increased internal concentration of  SA, plants were able to build resistant barriers for pathogens and other adverse environmental conditions [53]

Strigolactones

5-deoxystrigol, a strigolactone 5-Deoxystrigol chemical structure.png
5-deoxystrigol, a strigolactone

Strigolactones (SLs) were originally discovered through studies of the germination of the parasitic weed Striga lutea. It was found that the germination of Striga species was stimulated by the presence of a compound exuded by the roots of its host plant. [54] It was later shown that SLs that are exuded into the soil also promote the growth of symbiotic arbuscular mycorrhizal (AM) fungi. [55] More recently, another role of SLs was identified in the inhibition of shoot branching. [56] This discovery of the role of SLs in shoot branching led to a dramatic increase in the interest in these hormones, and it has since been shown that SLs play important roles in leaf senescence, phosphate starvation response, salt tolerance, and light signalling. [57]

Other known hormones

Other identified plant growth regulators include:

Use in horticulture

Synthetic plant hormones or PGRs are used in a number of different techniques involving plant propagation from cuttings, grafting, micropropagation and tissue culture. Most commonly they are commercially available as "rooting hormone powder".

The propagation of plants by cuttings of fully developed leaves, stems, or roots is performed by gardeners utilizing auxin as a rooting compound applied to the cut surface; the auxins are taken into the plant and promote root initiation. In grafting, auxin promotes callus tissue formation, which joins the surfaces of the graft together. In micropropagation, different PGRs are used to promote multiplication and then rooting of new plantlets. In the tissue-culturing of plant cells, PGRs are used to produce callus growth, multiplication, and rooting.

When used in field conditions, plant hormones or mixtures that include them can be applied as biostimulants. [66]

Seed dormancy

Plant hormones affect seed germination and dormancy by acting on different parts of the seed.

Embryo dormancy is characterized by a high ABA:GA ratio, whereas the seed has high abscisic acid sensitivity and low GA sensitivity. In order to release the seed from this type of dormancy and initiate seed germination, an alteration in hormone biosynthesis and degradation toward a low ABA/GA ratio, along with a decrease in ABA sensitivity and an increase in GA sensitivity, must occur.

ABA controls embryo dormancy, and GA embryo germination. Seed coat dormancy involves the mechanical restriction of the seed coat. This, along with a low embryo growth potential, effectively produces seed dormancy. GA releases this dormancy by increasing the embryo growth potential, and/or weakening the seed coat so the radical of the seedling can break through the seed coat. Different types of seed coats can be made up of living or dead cells, and both types can be influenced by hormones; those composed of living cells are acted upon after seed formation, whereas the seed coats composed of dead cells can be influenced by hormones during the formation of the seed coat. ABA affects testa or seed coat growth characteristics, including thickness, and effects the GA-mediated embryo growth potential. These conditions and effects occur during the formation of the seed, often in response to environmental conditions. Hormones also mediate endosperm dormancy: Endosperm in most seeds is composed of living tissue that can actively respond to hormones generated by the embryo. The endosperm often acts as a barrier to seed germination, playing a part in seed coat dormancy or in the germination process. Living cells respond to and also affect the ABA:GA ratio, and mediate cellular sensitivity; GA thus increases the embryo growth potential and can promote endosperm weakening. GA also affects both ABA-independent and ABA-inhibiting processes within the endosperm. [67]

Human use

Salicylic acid

Willow bark has been used for centuries as a painkiller. The active ingredient in willow bark that provides these effects is the hormone salicylic acid (SA). In 1899, the pharmaceutical company Bayer began marketing a derivative of SA as the drug aspirin. [68] In addition to its use as a painkiller, SA is also used in topical treatments of several skin conditions, including acne, warts and psoriasis. [69] Another derivative of SA, sodium salicylate has been found to suppress proliferation of lymphoblastic leukemia, prostate, breast, and melanoma human cancer cells. [70]

Jasmonic acid

Jasmonic acid (JA) can induce death in lymphoblastic leukemia cells. Methyl jasmonate (a derivative of JA, also found in plants) has been shown to inhibit proliferation in a number of cancer cell lines, [70] although there is still debate over its use as an anti-cancer drug, due to its potential negative effects on healthy cells. [71]

See also

Related Research Articles

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Vascular cambium</span> Main growth tissue in the stems, roots of plants

The vascular cambium is the main growth tissue in the stems and roots of many plants, specifically in dicots such as buttercups and oak trees, gymnosperms such as pine trees, as well as in certain other vascular plants. It produces secondary xylem inwards, towards the pith, and secondary phloem outwards, towards the bark.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Dormancy</span> State of minimized physical activity of an organism

Dormancy is a period in an organism's life cycle when growth, development, and physical activity are temporarily stopped. This minimizes metabolic activity and therefore helps an organism to conserve energy. Dormancy tends to be closely associated with environmental conditions. Organisms can synchronize entry to a dormant phase with their environment through predictive or consequential means. Predictive dormancy occurs when an organism enters a dormant phase before the onset of adverse conditions. For example, photoperiod and decreasing temperature are used by many plants to predict the onset of winter. Consequential dormancy occurs when organisms enter a dormant phase after adverse conditions have arisen. This is commonly found in areas with an unpredictable climate. While very sudden changes in conditions may lead to a high mortality rate among animals relying on consequential dormancy, its use can be advantageous, as organisms remain active longer and are therefore able to make greater use of available resources.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Ripening</span> Process in fruits that causes them to become more palatable

Ripening is a process in fruits that causes them to become more palatable. In general, fruit becomes sweeter, less green, and softer as it ripens. Even though the acidity of fruit increases as it ripens, the higher acidity level does not make the fruit seem tarter. This effect is attributed to the Brix-Acid Ratio. Climacteric fruits ripen after harvesting and so some fruits for market are picked green.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Auxin</span> Plant hormone

Auxins are a class of plant hormones with some morphogen-like characteristics. Auxins play a cardinal role in coordination of many growth and behavioral processes in plant life cycles and are essential for plant body development. The Dutch biologist Frits Warmolt Went first described auxins and their role in plant growth in the 1920s. Kenneth V. Thimann became the first to isolate one of these phytohormones and to determine its chemical structure as indole-3-acetic acid (IAA). Went and Thimann co-authored a book on plant hormones, Phytohormones, in 1937.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Cytokinin</span> Class of plant hormones promoting cell division

Cytokinins (CK) are a class of plant hormones that promote cell division, or cytokinesis, in plant roots and shoots. They are involved primarily in cell growth and differentiation, but also affect apical dominance, axillary bud growth, and leaf senescence.

Gibberellins (GAs) are plant hormones that regulate various developmental processes, including stem elongation, germination, dormancy, flowering, flower development, and leaf and fruit senescence. GAs are one of the longest-known classes of plant hormone. It is thought that the selective breeding of crop strains that were deficient in GA synthesis was one of the key drivers of the "green revolution" in the 1960s, a revolution that is credited to have saved over a billion lives worldwide.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Jasmonate</span> Lipid-based plant hormones

Jasmonate (JA) and its derivatives are lipid-based plant hormones that regulate a wide range of processes in plants, ranging from growth and photosynthesis to reproductive development. In particular, JAs are critical for plant defense against herbivory and plant responses to poor environmental conditions and other kinds of abiotic and biotic challenges. Some JAs can also be released as volatile organic compounds (VOCs) to permit communication between plants in anticipation of mutual dangers.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Brassinosteroid</span> Class of plant hormones

Brassinosteroids are a class of polyhydroxysteroids that have been recognized as a sixth class of plant hormones and may have utility as anticancer drugs for treating endocrine-responsive cancers by inducing apoptosis of cancer cells and inhibiting cancerous growth. These brassinosteroids were first explored during the 1970s when Mitchell et al. reported promotion in stem elongation and cell division by the treatment of organic extracts of rapeseed pollen. Brassinolide was the first brassinosteroid to be isolated in 1979, when pollen from Brassica napus was shown to promote stem elongation and cell divisions, and the biologically active molecule was isolated. The yield of brassinosteroids from 230 kg of Brassica napus pollen was only 10 mg. Since their discovery, over 70 BR compounds have been isolated from plants.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Abscisic acid</span> Plant hormone

Abscisic acid is a plant hormone. ABA functions in many plant developmental processes, including seed and bud dormancy, the control of organ size and stomatal closure. It is especially important for plants in the response to environmental stresses, including drought, soil salinity, cold tolerance, freezing tolerance, heat stress and heavy metal ion tolerance.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Hydrotropism</span>

Hydrotropism is a plant's growth response in which the direction of growth is determined by a stimulus or gradient in water concentration. A common example is a plant root growing in humid air bending toward a higher relative humidity level.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Plant senescence</span> Process of aging in plants

Plant senescence is the process of aging in plants. Plants have both stress-induced and age-related developmental aging. Chlorophyll degradation during leaf senescence reveals the carotenoids, such as anthocyanin and xanthophylls, which are the cause of autumn leaf color in deciduous trees. Leaf senescence has the important function of recycling nutrients, mostly nitrogen, to growing and storage organs of the plant. Unlike animals, plants continually form new organs and older organs undergo a highly regulated senescence program to maximize nutrient export.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Methyl jasmonate</span> Chemical compound

Methyl jasmonate is a volatile organic compound used in plant defense and many diverse developmental pathways such as seed germination, root growth, flowering, fruit ripening, and senescence. Methyl jasmonate is derived from jasmonic acid and the reaction is catalyzed by S-adenosyl-L-methionine:jasmonic acid carboxyl methyltransferase.

Aleurone is a protein found in protein granules of maturing seeds and tubers. The term also describes one of the two major cell types of the endosperm, the aleurone layer. The aleurone layer is the outermost layer of the endosperm, followed by the inner starchy endosperm. This layer of cells is sometimes referred to as the peripheral endosperm. It lies between the pericarp and the hyaline layer of the endosperm. Unlike the cells of the starchy endosperm, aleurone cells remain alive at maturity. The ploidy of the aleurone is (3n) [as a result of double fertilization].

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Gibberellic acid</span> Chemical compound

Gibberellic acid (also called gibberellin A3 or GA3) is a hormone found in plants and fungi. Its chemical formula is C19H22O6. When purified, it is a white to pale-yellow solid.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Lateral root</span> Plant root

Lateral roots, emerging from the pericycle, extend horizontally from the primary root (radicle) and over time makeup the iconic branching pattern of root systems. They contribute to anchoring the plant securely into the soil, increasing water uptake, and facilitate the extraction of nutrients required for the growth and development of the plant. Lateral roots increase the surface area of a plant's root system and can be found in great abundance in several plant species. In some cases, lateral roots have been found to form symbiotic relationships with rhizobia (bacteria) and mycorrhizae (fungi) found in the soil, to further increase surface area and increase nutrient uptake.

In plant biology, elicitors are extrinsic or foreign molecules often associated with plant pests, diseases or synergistic organisms. Elicitor molecules can attach to special receptor proteins located on plant cell membranes. These receptors are able to recognize the molecular pattern of elicitors and trigger intracellular defence signalling via the octadecanoid pathway. This response results in the enhanced synthesis of metabolites which reduce damage and increase resistance to pest, disease or environmental stress. This is an immune response called pattern triggered immunity (PTI).

Oryza is a genus in the plant family Poaceae, of which Oryza sativa is a member. Oryza is a genus of 24 species, most of which are annual and some perennial grasses, which are found in tropical and swampy parts of Africa, Asia and Australia. Given its wide geographic range, there exists a substantial diversity of specialized metabolites in the genus Oryza. Understanding this diversity can provide us solutions for mitigate crop losses due to disease and pest damage in rice, and boost agricultural production.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Strigolactone</span> Group of chemical compounds

Strigolactones are a group of chemical compounds produced by roots of plants. Due to their mechanism of action, these molecules have been classified as plant hormones or phytohormones. So far, strigolactones have been identified to be responsible for three different physiological processes: First, they promote the germination of parasitic organisms that grow in the host plant's roots, such as Strigalutea and other plants of the genus Striga. Second, strigolactones are fundamental for the recognition of the plant by symbiotic fungi, especially arbuscular mycorrhizal fungi, because they establish a mutualistic association with these plants, and provide phosphate and other soil nutrients. Third, strigolactones have been identified as branching inhibition hormones in plants; when present, these compounds prevent excess bud growing in stem terminals, stopping the branching mechanism in plants.

Plants are constantly exposed to different stresses that result in wounding. Plants have adapted to defend themselves against wounding events, like herbivore attacks or environmental stresses. There are many defense mechanisms that plants rely on to help fight off pathogens and subsequent infections. Wounding responses can be local, like the deposition of callose, and others are systemic, which involve a variety of hormones like jasmonic acid and abscisic acid.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Ethylene (plant hormone)</span> Alkene gas naturally regulating the plant growth

Ethylene (CH
2
=CH
2
) is an unsaturated hydrocarbon gas (alkene) acting as a naturally occurring plant hormone. It is the simplest alkene gas and is the first gas known to act as hormone. It acts at trace levels throughout the life of the plant by stimulating or regulating the ripening of fruit, the opening of flowers, the abscission (or shedding) of leaves and, in aquatic and semi-aquatic species, promoting the 'escape' from submergence by means of rapid elongation of stems or leaves. This escape response is particularly important in rice farming. Commercial fruit-ripening rooms use "catalytic generators" to make ethylene gas from a liquid supply of ethanol. Typically, a gassing level of 500 to 2,000 ppm is used, for 24 to 48 hours. Care must be taken to control carbon dioxide levels in ripening rooms when gassing, as high temperature ripening (20 °C; 68 °F) has been seen to produce CO2 levels of 10% in 24 hours.

References

  1. Méndez-Hernández HA, Ledezma-Rodríguez M, Avilez-Montalvo RN, Juárez-Gómez YL, Skeete A, Avilez-Montalvo J, et al. (2019). "Signaling Overview of Plant Somatic Embryogenesis". Frontiers in Plant Science. 10: 77. doi: 10.3389/fpls.2019.00077 . PMC   6375091 . PMID   30792725.
  2. Shigenaga AM, Argueso CT (August 2016). "No hormone to rule them all: Interactions of plant hormones during the responses of plants to pathogens". Seminars in Cell & Developmental Biology. 56: 174–189. doi:10.1016/j.semcdb.2016.06.005. PMID   27312082.
  3. Bürger M, Chory J (August 2019). "Stressed Out About Hormones: How Plants Orchestrate Immunity". Cell Host & Microbe. 26 (2): 163–172. doi:10.1016/j.chom.2019.07.006. PMC   7228804 . PMID   31415749.
  4. Ku YS, Sintaha M, Cheung MY, Lam HM (October 2018). "Plant Hormone Signaling Crosstalks between Biotic and Abiotic Stress Responses". International Journal of Molecular Sciences. 19 (10): 3206. doi: 10.3390/ijms19103206 . PMC   6214094 . PMID   30336563.
  5. Ullah A, Manghwar H, Shaban M, Khan AH, Akbar A, Ali U, et al. (November 2018). "Phytohormones enhanced drought tolerance in plants: a coping strategy". Environmental Science and Pollution Research International. 25 (33): 33103–33118. Bibcode:2018ESPR...2533103U. doi:10.1007/s11356-018-3364-5. PMID   30284160. S2CID   52913388.
  6. Pierre-Jerome E, Drapek C, Benfey PN (October 2018). "Regulation of Division and Differentiation of Plant Stem Cells". Annual Review of Cell and Developmental Biology. 34: 289–310. doi:10.1146/annurev-cellbio-100617-062459. PMC   6556207 . PMID   30134119.
  7. "Plant hormones". NCS Pearson. Archived from the original on 2021-11-27. Retrieved 2018-08-14.
  8. "Plant Hormones". Archived from the original on 2019-12-18. Retrieved 2018-08-14.
  9. Went FW, Thimann KV (1937). Phytohormones. New York: The Macmillan Company.
  10. Tarakhovskaya ER, Maslov Y, Shishova MF (2007). "Phytohormones in algae". Russian Journal of Plant Physiology. 54 (2): 163–170. doi:10.1134/s1021443707020021. S2CID   27373543.
  11. Rademacher W (1994). "Gibberellin formation in microorganisms". Plant Growth Regulation. 15 (3): 303–314. doi:10.1007/BF00029903. S2CID   33138732.
  12. Srivastava LM (2002). Plant growth and development: hormones and environment. Academic Press. p. 140. ISBN   978-0-12-660570-9.
  13. Öpik H, Rolfe SA, Willis JA, Street HE (2005). The physiology of flowering plants (4th ed.). Cambridge University Press. p. 191. ISBN   978-0-521-66251-2.[ permanent dead link ]
  14. Swarup R, Perry P, Hagenbeek D, Van Der Straeten D, Beemster GT, Sandberg G, et al. (July 2007). "Ethylene upregulates auxin biosynthesis in Arabidopsis seedlings to enhance inhibition of root cell elongation". The Plant Cell. 19 (7): 2186–96. doi:10.1105/tpc.107.052100. PMC   1955695 . PMID   17630275.
  15. Srivastava 2002 , p. 143
  16. Botany: a brief introduction to plant biology. New York: Wiley. 1979. pp.  155–170. ISBN   978-0-471-02114-8.
  17. Feurtado JA, Ambrose SJ, Cutler AJ, Ross AR, Abrams SR, Kermode AR (February 2004). "Dormancy termination of western white pine (Pinus monticola Dougl. Ex D. Don) seeds is associated with changes in abscisic acid metabolism". Planta. 218 (4): 630–9. Bibcode:2004Plant.218..630F. doi:10.1007/s00425-003-1139-8. PMID   14663585. S2CID   25035678.
  18. Kermode AR (December 2005). "Role of Abscisic Acid in Seed Dormancy". J Plant Growth Regul. 24 (4): 319–344. doi: 10.1007/s00344-005-0110-2 .
  19. Ren H, Gao Z, Chen L, Wei K, Liu J, Fan Y, et al. (2007). "Dynamic analysis of ABA accumulation in relation to the rate of ABA catabolism in maize tissues under water deficit". Journal of Experimental Botany. 58 (2): 211–9. doi: 10.1093/jxb/erl117 . PMID   16982652.
  20. Else MA, Coupland D, Dutton L, Jackson MB (January 2001). "Decreased root hydraulic conductivity reduces leaf water potential, initiates stomatal closure, and slows leaf expansion in flooded plants of castor oil (Ricinus communis) despite diminished delivery of ABA from the roots to shoots in xylem sap". Physiologia Plantarum. 111 (1): 46–54. doi:10.1034/j.1399-3054.2001.1110107.x.
  21. Yan J, Tsuichihara N, Etoh T, Iwai S (October 2007). "Reactive oxygen species and nitric oxide are involved in ABA inhibition of stomatal opening". Plant, Cell & Environment. 30 (10): 1320–5. doi:10.1111/j.1365-3040.2007.01711.x. PMID   17727421.
  22. Osborne DJ, McManus MT (2005). Hormones, signals and target cells in plant development . Cambridge University Press. p.  158. ISBN   978-0-521-33076-3.
  23. Tomic S, Gabdoulline RR, Kojic-Prodic B, Wade RC (1998). "Classification of auxin related compounds based on similarity of their interaction fields: Extension to a new set of compounds". Internet Journal of Chemistry. 1 (26): CP1–U21.
  24. Walz A, Park S, Slovin JP, Ludwig-Müller J, Momonoki YS, Cohen JD (February 2002). "A gene encoding a protein modified by the phytohormone indoleacetic acid". Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America. 99 (3): 1718–23. Bibcode:2002PNAS...99.1718W. doi: 10.1073/pnas.032450399 . PMC   122257 . PMID   11830675.
  25. Grove MD, Spencer GF, Rohwedder WK, Mandava N, Worley JF, Warthen JD, et al. (1979). "Brassinolide, a plant growth-promoting steroid isolated from Brassica napus pollen". Nature. 281 (5728): 216–217. Bibcode:1979Natur.281..216G. doi:10.1038/281216a0. S2CID   4335601.
  26. 1 2 Tang J, Han Z, Chai J (December 2016). "Q&A: what are brassinosteroids and how do they act in plants?". BMC Biology. 14 (1): 113. doi: 10.1186/s12915-016-0340-8 . PMC   5180403 . PMID   28007032.
  27. Yamagami A, Saito C, Nakazawa M, Fujioka S, Uemura T, Matsui M, et al. (July 2017). "Evolutionarily conserved BIL4 suppresses the degradation of brassinosteroid receptor BRI1 and regulates cell elongation". Scientific Reports. 7 (1): 5739. Bibcode:2017NatSR...7.5739Y. doi:10.1038/s41598-017-06016-2. PMC   5515986 . PMID   28720789.
  28. Yamagami A, Nakazawa M, Matsui M, Tujimoto M, Sakuta M, Asami T, Nakano T (February 2009). "Chemical genetics reveal the novel transmembrane protein BIL4, which mediates plant cell elongation in brassinosteroid signaling". Bioscience, Biotechnology, and Biochemistry. 73 (2): 415–421. doi: 10.1271/bbb.80752 . PMID   19202280. S2CID   35568960.
  29. 1 2 3 Planas-Riverola A, Gupta A, Betegón-Putze I, Bosch N, Ibañes M, Caño-Delgado AI (March 2019). "Brassinosteroid signaling in plant development and adaptation to stress". Development. 146 (5): dev151894. doi:10.1242/dev.151894. PMC   6432667 . PMID   30872266.
  30. Ahammed GJ, Li X, Liu A, Chen S (19 March 2020). "Brassinosteroids in Plant Tolerance to Abiotic Stress". Journal of Plant Growth Regulation. 39 (4): 1451–1464. doi:10.1007/s00344-020-10098-0. ISSN   0721-7595. S2CID   213166792.
  31. Sipes DL, Einset JW (August 1983). "Cytokinin stimulation of abscission in lemon pistil explants". J Plant Growth Regul. 2 (1–3): 73–80. doi:10.1007/BF02042235. S2CID   43997977.
  32. Akhtar SS, Mekureyaw MF, Pandey C, Roitsch T (2020). "Role of Cytokinins for Interactions of Plants With Microbial Pathogens and Pest Insects". Frontiers in Plant Science. 10: 1777. doi: 10.3389/fpls.2019.01777 . PMC   7042306 . PMID   32140160.
  33. "Cytokinin - an overview | ScienceDirect Topics". www.sciencedirect.com. Retrieved 2021-06-10.
  34. Wang Y, Liu C, Li K, Sun F, Hu H, Li X, et al. (August 2007). "Arabidopsis EIN2 modulates stress response through abscisic acid response pathway". Plant Molecular Biology. 64 (6): 633–44. doi:10.1007/s11103-007-9182-7. PMID   17533512. S2CID   42139177.
  35. Jackson MB (1985). "Ethylene and Responses of Plants to Soil Waterlogging and Submergence". Annual Review of Plant Physiology. 36 (1): 145–174. doi:10.1146/annurev.pp.36.060185.001045. ISSN   0066-4294.
  36. Jackson MB (January 2008). "Ethylene-promoted elongation: an adaptation to submergence stress". Annals of Botany. 101 (2): 229–48. doi:10.1093/aob/mcm237. PMC   2711016 . PMID   17956854.
  37. Jackson MB, Ram PC (January 2003). "Physiological and molecular basis of susceptibility and tolerance of rice plants to complete submergence". Annals of Botany. 91 Spec No (2): 227–41. doi:10.1093/aob/mcf242. PMC   4244997 . PMID   12509343.
  38. Voesenek LA, Benschop JJ, Bou J, Cox MC, Groeneveld HW, Millenaar FF, et al. (January 2003). "Interactions between plant hormones regulate submergence-induced shoot elongation in the flooding-tolerant dicot Rumex palustris". Annals of Botany. 91 Spec No (2): 205–11. doi:10.1093/aob/mcf116. PMC   4244986 . PMID   12509341.
  39. Summers JE, Voesenek L, Blom C, Lewis MJ, Jackson MB (July 1996). "Potamogeton pectinatus Is Constitutively Incapable of Synthesizing Ethylene and Lacks 1-Aminocyclopropane-1-Carboxylic Acid Oxidase". Plant Physiology. 111 (3): 901–908. doi:10.1104/pp.111.3.901. PMC   157909 . PMID   12226336.
  40. Grennan AK (June 2006). "Gibberellin metabolism enzymes in rice". Plant Physiology. 141 (2): 524–6. doi:10.1104/pp.104.900192. PMC   1475483 . PMID   16760495.
  41. Tsai FY, Lin CC, Kao CH (January 1997). "A comparative study of the effects of abscisic acid and methyl jasmonate on seedling growth of rice". Plant Growth Regulation. 21 (1): 37–42. doi:10.1023/A:1005761804191. S2CID   34099546.
  42. Demole E, Lederer E, Mercier D (1962). "Isolement et détermination de la structure du jasmonate de méthyle, constituant odorant caractéristique de l'essence de jasmin" [Isolation and determination of the structure of methyl jasmonate, a fragrant constituent characteristic of jasmine oil]. Helvetica Chimica Acta (in French). 45 (2): 675–685. doi:10.1002/hlca.19620450233.
  43. 1 2 Browse J (2005). "Jasmonate: an oxylipin signal with many roles in plants". Plant Hormones. Vitamins & Hormones. Vol. 72. pp. 431–56. doi:10.1016/S0083-6729(05)72012-4. ISBN   9780127098722. PMID   16492478.
  44. Katsir L, Chung HS, Koo AJ, Howe GA (August 2008). "Jasmonate signaling: a conserved mechanism of hormone sensing". Current Opinion in Plant Biology. 11 (4): 428–35. doi:10.1016/j.pbi.2008.05.004. PMC   2560989 . PMID   18583180.
  45. Lorenzo O, Solano R (October 2005). "Molecular players regulating the jasmonate signalling network". Current Opinion in Plant Biology. 8 (5): 532–40. doi:10.1016/j.pbi.2005.07.003. PMID   16039901.
  46. Wasternack C (October 2007). "Jasmonates: an update on biosynthesis, signal transduction and action in plant stress response, growth and development". Annals of Botany. 100 (4): 681–97. doi:10.1093/aob/mcm079. PMC   2749622 . PMID   17513307.
  47. 1 2 Howe GA, Jander G (2008). "Plant Immunity to Insect Herbivores". Annu. Rev. Plant Biol. 59: 41–66. doi:10.1146/annurev.arplant.59.032607.092825. PMID   18031220.
  48. Paschold A, Halitschke R, Baldwin IT (July 2007). "Co(i)-ordinating defenses: NaCOI1 mediates herbivore- induced resistance in Nicotiana attenuata and reveals the role of herbivore movement in avoiding defenses". The Plant Journal: For Cell and Molecular Biology. 51 (1): 79–91. doi: 10.1111/j.1365-313X.2007.03119.x . PMID   17561925.
  49. Zarate SI, Kempema LA, Walling LL (February 2007). "Silverleaf whitefly induces salicylic acid defenses and suppresses effectual jasmonic acid defenses". Plant Physiology. 143 (2): 866–75. doi:10.1104/pp.106.090035. PMC   1803729 . PMID   17189328.
  50. Rivas-San Vicente M, Plasencia J (June 2011). "Salicylic acid beyond defence: its role in plant growth and development". Journal of Experimental Botany. 62 (10): 3321–38. doi: 10.1093/jxb/err031 . PMID   21357767.
  51. Dempsey DA, Klessig DF (March 2017). "How does the multifaceted plant hormone salicylic acid combat disease in plants and are similar mechanisms utilized in humans?". BMC Biology. 15 (1): 23. doi: 10.1186/s12915-017-0364-8 . PMC   5364617 . PMID   28335774.
  52. Kumar D (November 2014). "Salicylic acid signaling in disease resistance". Plant Science. 228: 127–34. doi:10.1016/j.plantsci.2014.04.014. PMID   25438793.
  53. Ding P, Ding Y (June 2020). "Stories of Salicylic Acid: A Plant Defense Hormone". Trends in Plant Science. 25 (6): 549–565. doi:10.1016/j.tplants.2020.01.004. PMID   32407695. S2CID   213666131.
  54. Xie X, Yoneyama K, Yoneyama K (2010-07-01). "The strigolactone story". Annual Review of Phytopathology. 48 (1): 93–117. doi:10.1146/annurev-phyto-073009-114453. PMID   20687831. S2CID   27305711.
  55. Akiyama K, Matsuzaki K, Hayashi H (June 2005). "Plant sesquiterpenes induce hyphal branching in arbuscular mycorrhizal fungi". Nature. 435 (7043): 824–7. Bibcode:2005Natur.435..824A. doi:10.1038/nature03608. PMID   15944706. S2CID   4343708.
  56. Gomez-Roldan V, Fermas S, Brewer PB, Puech-Pagès V, Dun EA, Pillot JP, et al. (September 2008). "Strigolactone inhibition of shoot branching". Nature. 455 (7210): 189–94. Bibcode:2008Natur.455..189G. doi:10.1038/nature07271. PMID   18690209. S2CID   205214618.
  57. Saeed W, Naseem S, Ali Z (2017-08-28). "Strigolactones Biosynthesis and Their Role in Abiotic Stress Resilience in Plants: A Critical Review". Frontiers in Plant Science. 8: 1487. doi: 10.3389/fpls.2017.01487 . PMC   5581504 . PMID   28894457.
  58. Lindsey K, Casson S, Chilley P (February 2002). "Peptides: new signalling molecules in plants". Trends in Plant Science. 7 (2): 78–83. doi: 10.1016/S0960-9822(01)00435-3 . PMID   11832279. S2CID   5064533.
  59. Takahashi F, Suzuki T, Osakabe Y, Betsuyaku S, Kondo Y, Dohmae N, et al. (April 2018). "A small peptide modulates stomatal control via abscisic acid in long-distance signalling". Nature. 556 (7700): 235–238. Bibcode:2018Natur.556..235T. doi:10.1038/s41586-018-0009-2. PMID   29618812. S2CID   4598494.
  60. Pandey S, Ranade SA, Nagar PK, Kumar N (September 2000). "Role of polyamines and ethylene as modulators of plant senescence". Journal of Biosciences. 25 (3): 291–9. doi:10.1007/BF02703938. PMID   11022232. S2CID   21925829.
  61. Moschou PN, Roubelakis-Angelakis KA (March 2014). "Polyamines and programmed cell death". Journal of Experimental Botany. 65 (5): 1285–96. doi: 10.1093/jxb/ert373 . PMID   24218329.
  62. Shapiro AD (2005). "Nitric oxide signaling in plants". Plant Hormones. Vitamins & Hormones. Vol. 72. pp. 339–98. doi:10.1016/S0083-6729(05)72010-0. ISBN   9780127098722. PMID   16492476. S2CID   13308295.
  63. Roszer T (2012). "Nitric Oxide Synthesis in the Chloroplast". In Roszer T (ed.). The Biology of Subcellular Nitric Oxide. New York, London, Heidelberg: Springer. ISBN   978-94-007-2818-9.
  64. Chiwocha SD, Dixon KW, Flematti GR, Ghisalberti EL, Merritt DJ, Nelson DC, et al. (2009-10-01). "Karrikins: A new family of plant growth regulators in smoke". Plant Science. 177 (4): 252–256. doi:10.1016/j.plantsci.2009.06.007.
  65. Li W, Nguyen KH, Chu HD, Ha CV, Watanabe Y, Osakabe Y, et al. (November 2017). "The karrikin receptor KAI2 promotes drought resistance in Arabidopsis thaliana". PLOS Genetics. 13 (11): e1007076. doi: 10.1371/journal.pgen.1007076 . PMC   5703579 . PMID   29131815.
  66. Yakhin OI, Lubyanov AA, Yakhin IA, Brown PH (2017-01-26). "Biostimulants in Plant Science: A Global Perspective". Frontiers in Plant Science. 7: 2049. doi: 10.3389/fpls.2016.02049 . PMC   5266735 . PMID   28184225.
  67. Leubner G (2000). "Seed Dormancy". The Seed Biology Place. Royal Holloway University of London.
  68. Diarmuid J (December 2008). Aspirin : the remarkable story of a wonder drug. New York, NY. ISBN   9781596918160. OCLC   879610692.{{cite book}}: CS1 maint: location missing publisher (link)
  69. Madan RK, Levitt J (April 2014). "A review of toxicity from topical salicylic acid preparations". Journal of the American Academy of Dermatology. 70 (4): 788–792. doi:10.1016/j.jaad.2013.12.005. PMID   24472429.
  70. 1 2 Fingrut O, Flescher E (April 2002). "Plant stress hormones suppress the proliferation and induce apoptosis in human cancer cells". Leukemia. 16 (4): 608–16. doi: 10.1038/sj.leu.2402419 . PMID   11960340.
  71. Zhang M, Zhang MW, Zhang L, Zhang L (2015-07-24). "Methyl jasmonate and its potential in cancer therapy". Plant Signaling & Behavior. 10 (9): e1062199. Bibcode:2015PlSiB..10E2199Z. doi:10.1080/15592324.2015.1062199. PMC   4883903 . PMID   26208889.