1997 Mozambique floods

1997 Mozambique floods
	Tropical Storm Lisette on March 1
Date	February-March 1997
Location	Southern Mozambique
Deaths	87

Last updated March 03, 2019

Throughout the month of February 1997, as a consequence of an active Intertropical Convergence Zone (ITCZ) tropical cyclogenesis was quite common over the southern Indian Ocean, and especially the Mozambique Channel. Two storms in particular, Cyclone Josie and Tropical Storm Lisette formed in the Chanel and inundated much Mozambique.

The Intertropical Convergence Zone (ITCZ), known by sailors as the doldrums or the calms, is the area encircling Earth near the Equator, where the northeast and southeast trade winds converge.

Tropical cyclogenesis is the development and strengthening of a tropical cyclone in the atmosphere. The mechanisms through which tropical cyclogenesis occurs are distinctly different from those through which temperate cyclogenesis occurs. Tropical cyclogenesis involves the development of a warm-core cyclone, due to significant convection in a favorable atmospheric environment.

Mozambique Channel Indian Ocean strait between Madagascar and Mozambique

The Mozambique Channel is an arm of the Indian Ocean located between the Southeast African countries of Madagascar and Mozambique. The channel is about 1,600 km (1,000 mi) long and 419 km (260 mi) across at its narrowest point, and reaches a depth of 3,292 m (10,800 ft) about 230 km (143 mi) off the coast of Mozambique. A warm current, the Mozambique Current, flows in a southward direction in the channel, leading into the Agulhas Current off the east coast of South Africa.

Affecting a country already inundated by Cyclone Josie earlier in the year, Lisette brought additional flooding to the nation. The Nampula Province in Mozambique was severely damaged by the storm, where many roads were damaged. Effects from the system spread as far north as northern Mozambique. Overall, 87 people died while 80,000 others were directly affected.

Nampula is a province of northern Mozambique. It has an area of 79,010 km² and a population of 3,985,613. Nampula is the capital of the province.

Meteorological history

In late January into February 1997, the ITCZ produced areas of convection around the northern tip of Madagascar. One such convective system from spawned a low pressure area between Tromelin island and Agaléga, which initially was still located within the ITCZ. On February 5, the Météo-France office on Réunion (MFR) reported that system developed into a tropical depression, and failed to intensify further while executing a clockwise loop off northeastern Madagascar. After the convection increased, both MFR and the Joint Typhoon Warning Center (JTWC) estimate that the depression intensified into a tropical storm on February 8 and was named Josie by the Meteorological Services of Madagascar. Subsequently, the storm moved across northern Madagascar and emerged into the Mozambique Channel on February 9 as a tropical depression, its structure deteriorated. Josie turned to the southwest around western Madagascar, and despite warm waters it initially failed to re-intensify much. On February 11, MFR estimated that Josie re-attained tropical storm status, and subsequently turned to the south due to a broad area of low pressure in the region. Data from MFR suggested that the storm quickly intensified once moving far enough away from Madagascar, becoming a tropical cyclone on February 13 and soon after reaching peak 10–winds of 140 km/h (85 mph); in contrast, the JTWC estimated peak winds of 165 km/h (105 mph).^{[nb 1]} While near peak intensity, the eyewall of Josie passed over Europa Island. An approaching cold front turned the cyclone to the southeast, bringing the storm over cooler waters and causing weakening due to increased wind shear. On February 16, Josie became extratropical well to the south of Madagascar, and dissipated the next day.^[2]^[3]

Agaléga are two outer islands of Mauritius located in the Indian Ocean, about 1,000 kilometres (620 mi) north of Mauritius island. The population of the islands as at July 2011 was estimated at 300. The islands have a total area of 2,600 hectares. The North island is 12.5 km long and 1.5 km wide, while the South island is 7 km long and 4.5 km wide. The North Island is home to the islands' airstrip and the capital Vingt Cinq. The islands are known for their coconuts, the production of which is their main industry, and for the Agalega day gecko.

Météo-France is the French national meteorological service.

Réunion is an overseas department and region of France and an island in the Indian Ocean, east of Madagascar and 175 km (109 mi) southwest of Mauritius. As of January 2019, it had a population of 866,506.

On February 24, following decreased pressures across the northern Mozambique channel after Josie's demise, the ITCZ spawned a tropical wave. An atmospheric circulation began to subsequently develop along the wave axis as it was centered just offshore the Mozambique coast. Situated in an environment with warm sea surface temperatures,^[3] the system was first classified by MFR late on February 24, though the JTWC did not start watching the system until the next day, when it was located slightly onshore Mozambique.^[4] The following day, MFR upgraded the system into a tropical depression^[3] while located within 100 km (60 mi) of the coast of Mozambique.^[4] The system slowly became better organized as the storm drifting generally south^[3] and on the evening of February 27, the storm developed a central dense overcast, a large mass of deep convection,^[3] and was thus upgraded into a moderate tropical storm^[4] while located halfway between Mozambique and Madagascar.^[3] By this time, intensity estimates from the JTWC indicated that the storm had attained hurricane-equivalent status.^[4]

Tropical waves, easterly waves, or tropical easterly waves, also known as African easterly waves in the Atlantic region, are a type of atmospheric trough, an elongated area of relatively low air pressure, oriented north to south, which moves from east to west across the tropics, causing areas of cloudiness and thunderstorms. West-moving waves can also form from the tail end of frontal zones in the subtropics and tropics, and may be referred to as easterly waves, but these waves are not properly called tropical waves; they are a form of inverted trough sharing many characteristics with fully tropical waves. All tropical waves form in the easterly flow along the equatorward side of the subtropical ridge or belt of high pressure which lies north and south of the Intertropical Convergence Zone (ITCZ). Tropical waves are generally carried westward by the prevailing easterly winds along the tropics and subtropics near the equator. They can lead to the formation of tropical cyclones in the north Atlantic and northeastern Pacific basins. A tropical wave study is aided by Hovmöller diagrams, a graph of meteorological data.

Atmospheric circulation is the large-scale movement of air, and together with ocean circulation is the means by which thermal energy is redistributed on the surface of the Earth.

The central dense overcast, or CDO, of a tropical cyclone or strong subtropical cyclone is the large central area of thunderstorms surrounding its circulation center, caused by the formation of its eyewall. It can be round, angular, oval, or irregular in shape. This feature shows up in tropical cyclones of tropical storm or hurricane strength. How far the center is embedded within the CDO, and the temperature difference between the cloud tops within the CDO and the cyclone's eye, can help determine a tropical cyclone's intensity. Locating the center within the CDO can be a problem for strong tropical storms and with systems of minimal hurricane strength as its location can be obscured by the CDO's high cloud canopy. This center location problem can be resolved through the use of microwave satellite imagery.

Following the movement of a trough, Lisette abruptly turned west, though the storm's motion remained slow. Meanwhile, Lisette began to deepen, and by that evening, the storm began to develop an eye. Based on this, MFR upgraded the storm into a severe tropical storm.^[3] At this time, the storm attained its peak intensity of 95 km/h (60 mph), although JTWC data indicates that Cyclone Lisette was significantly stronger, with winds of 130 km/h (80 mph), making Lisette a moderate Category 1 hurricane on the Saffir-Simpson Hurricane Wind Scale.^[4] However, early on March 1, the storm leveled off in intensity for no known reason, though it has been theorized that this was due to an increase wind shear.^[3] After maintaining its intensity for a day, it began to approach the coast of Mozambique ^[4] and thus began to show hints of additional development due a sudden decrease in shear.^[3] According to the JTWC, the storm peaked in intensity with winds of 140 km/h (85 mph). However, MFR suggests that the storm did not intensify prior to landfall on March 1. Although the JTWC stopped monitoring the system the subsequent day,^[4] MFR tracked this system until March 3, when it was located over Zimbabwe, ending the above-average season.^[3]

Trough (meteorology) elongated region of low atmospheric pressure

A trough is an elongated (extended) region of relatively low atmospheric pressure, often associated with fronts. Troughs may be at the surface, or aloft, or both under various conditions. Most troughs bring clouds, showers, and a wind shift, particularly following the passage of the trough. This results from convergence or "squeezing" which forces lifting of moist air behind the trough line.

Zimbabwe, officially the Republic of Zimbabwe, is a landlocked country located in southern Africa, between the Zambezi and Limpopo Rivers, bordered by South Africa, Botswana, Zambia and Mozambique. The capital and largest city is Harare. A country of roughly 16 million people, Zimbabwe has 16 official languages, with English, Shona, and Ndebele the most commonly used.

Impact and aftermath

Facing a region already inundated by Cyclone Josie less than a month prior,^[5] Lisette was also the fourth tropical cyclone observed in the Mozambique Channel that season,^[6] thought it was the only storm of the year to strike Mozambique.^[7] Tropical Storm Lisette brought additional flooding to the nation.^[8] Most of the south-central Mozambique was drenched with rainfall totals ranging from 60 mm (2.4 in) to 200 mm (7.9 in), setting numerous records.^[9] Due to the precursor disturbance of Lisette, the Nampula Province in Mozambique was severely flooded by the storm,^[10] severely damaging several roads, though two of the roads were eventually repaired.^[11] The Sofala and Inhambane Provinces were also badly affected by the system;^[12] widespread flooding spread as far north as northern Mozambique.^[13]

A tropical cyclone is a rapidly rotating storm system characterized by a low-pressure center, a closed low-level atmospheric circulation, strong winds, and a spiral arrangement of thunderstorms that produce heavy rain. Depending on its location and strength, a tropical cyclone is referred to by different names, including hurricane, typhoon, tropical storm, cyclonic storm, tropical depression, and simply cyclone. A hurricane is a tropical cyclone that occurs in the Atlantic Ocean and northeastern Pacific Ocean, and a typhoon occurs in the northwestern Pacific Ocean; while in the south Pacific or Indian Ocean, comparable storms are referred to simply as "tropical cyclones" or "severe cyclonic storms".

Sofala is a province of Mozambique. It has a population of 1,642,920. Beira is the capital of the province, named for the ruined port of Sofala which is 35 kilometres (22 mi) to the south.

Inhambane is a province of Mozambique located on the coast in the southern part of the country. It has an area of 68,615 km² and a population of 1,496,824. The provincial capital is also called Inhambane.

Due to the storm, many sooty terns (Onychoprion fuscatus) were swept inland from the coast for only the second time in recorded history.^[14] Overall, 87 people perished in the cyclone while 80,000 others were directly affected.^[15] Several years after the passage of the system, an appeal was launched for money from the Government of South Africa, asking them to pay for the damaged roads, but because the road was built by a private company, the appeal was denied.^[10]

Notes

↑ Wind estimates from Météo-France and most other basins throughout the world are sustained over 10 minutes, while estimates from the United States-based Joint Typhoon Warning Center are sustained over 1 minute. 10 minute winds are about 1.14 times the amount of 1 minute winds used by the JTWC.^[1]

Related Research Articles

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The 2006–07 South-West Indian Ocean cyclone season was a slightly above average event in tropical cyclone formation which started on November 15, 2006 and ended on April 30, 2007 for most areas and on May 15, 2007 for Mauritius and the Seychelles. These dates conventionally delimit the period of each year when most tropical cyclones form in the basin, which is west of 90°E and south of the Equator. Tropical cyclones in this basin are monitored by the Regional Specialised Meteorological Centre in Réunion.

The 2005–06 South-West Indian Ocean cyclone season was the fifth least-active on record. The Météo-France office on the island of Réunion tracked 13 tropical disturbances, of which six intensified into a moderate tropical storm. Three of these systems proceeded to attain tropical cyclone status – reaching 10 minute maximum sustained winds of at least 120 km/h (75 mph). The American-based Joint Typhoon Warning Center also tracked eight storms in the basin. Activity was below normal due to a powerful Walker circulation, which increased convection over the neighboring Australian basin, but suppressed activity in the western Indian Ocean. As a result, most of the storms developed near or entered from the Australian basin, crossing 90°E to enter the South-West Indian Ocean.

The 2004–05 South-West Indian Ocean cyclone season was a near average season, despite beginning unusually early on August 30 with the formation of an early-season tropical depression. Météo-France's meteorological office in Réunion (MFR) ultimately monitored 18 tropical disturbances during the season, of which 15 became tropical depressions. Two storms – Arola and Bento – formed in November, and the latter became the most intense November cyclone on record. Bento attained its peak intensity at a low latitude, and weakened before threatening land. Tropical Cyclone Chambo was the only named storm in December. In January, Severe Tropical Storm Daren and Cyclone Ernest existed simultaneously. The latter storm struck southern Madagascar, and five days later, Moderate Tropical Storm Felapi affected the same area; the two storms killed 78 people and left over 32,000 people homeless. At the end of January, Severe Tropical Storm Gerard existed as an unnamed tropical storm for 18 hours due to discrepancies between warning centers.

The 2003–04 South-West Indian Ocean cyclone season featured the most intense tropical cyclone in the South-West Indian Ocean, Cyclone Gafilo, as well as nine other named storms. Tropical activity began on September 28 when Moderate Tropical Storm Abaimba formed at a low latitude. Activity continued until late May, following Severe Tropical Storm Juba, which marked the third year in a row that a storm formed in May. The final disturbance, one of sixteen, dissipated on May 24. Activity was near average, and the season was one of the longest on record.

The 2002–03 South-West Indian Ocean cyclone season was one of the longest lasting and the second-most active season in the South-West Indian Ocean. Storms during the season impacted the Mascarene Islands, Seychelles, Madagascar, and countries in southeastern Africa. The season began early when an unnamed tropical storm struck Seychelles in September, becoming the most damaging storm there in 50 years. The next system, Atang, was the first named storm of the season, but was only a tropical depression; it was named due to the threat to an outer island of Mauritius. Atang later struck Tanzania in a climatologically unusual area in November, resulting in unconfirmed deaths of fishermen. The first named storm to reach tropical storm intensity was Boura, which brushed the Mascarene Islands with gusty winds and rainfall. In December, Cyclone Crystal threatened to strike Mauritius but instead veered eastward, and later, Tropical Storm Delfina lasted from late December through early January 2003. Delfina damaged or destroyed thousands of houses in Mozambique and Malawi, killing 54 people.

The 2000–01 South-West Indian Ocean cyclone season was a fairly quiet season with only five named storms, although there was an additional unnamed tropical storm and two subtropical cyclones with gale-force winds. It started early, with a tropical disturbance forming on August 1 – the first day of the cyclone year. However, the first named storm, Ando, was not named until January 2, which at the time was the 4th latest on record. Ando would become the most intense cyclone of the year, reaching peak winds of 195 km/h (120 mph) according to the Météo-France office (MFR) on Réunion, the official Regional Specialized Meteorological Center for the basin. The agency tracked storms south of the Equator and west of 90°E to the east coast of Africa.

The 2008–09 South-West Indian Ocean cyclone season was a slightly above average event in tropical cyclone formation. It began on November 15, 2008, and officially ended on April 30, 2009, with the exception for Mauritius and the Seychelles, for which it ended on May 15, 2009. These dates conventionally delimit the period of each year when most tropical cyclones form in the basin, which is west of 90°E and south of the Equator. Tropical cyclones in this basin were monitored by the Regional Specialised Meteorological Centre in Réunion.

The 1998–99 South-West Indian Ocean cyclone season was a quiet season that had the fourth-lowest number of days with tropical storm or tropical cyclone activity. Most of the storms formed either in the Mozambique Channel or in the far eastern portion of the basin, with five storms crossing from the adjacent Australian basin east of 90° E. As a result, few storms impacted Madagascar, and none made landfall on the African continent. Throughout most of the season, there was below-normal sea surface temperatures in the Indian Ocean east of Madagascar. In February, typically the peak in activity, Réunion island recorded its highest average monthly pressure since 1953. Due to generally unfavorable conditions, there were only six tropical storms tracked by the Météo-France office (MFR) on Réunion. There were only two tropical cyclones – a storm with winds of at least 120 km/h (75 mph).

The 1996–97 South-West Indian Ocean cyclone season was the longest on record, with both an unusually early start and unusually late ending. Most activity was from November through February. According to the Météo-France office (MFR) at Réunion, there were 21 tropical disturbances, 14 of which intensified into tropical depressions. There were 12 named storms, beginning with Antoinette and proceeding sequentially until Lisette. In addition, the Joint Typhoon Warning Center also warned on storms in the region, which identified five other tropical storms. Five of the storms attained tropical cyclone status, or with 10–minute maximum sustained winds of at least 120 km/h (75 mph); of these, three strengthened further into intense tropical cyclones, with Daniella and Helinda tied for strongest storm of the season.

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The 1984–85 South-West Indian Ocean cyclone season was an average cyclone season. Tropical cyclones in this basin are monitored by the Regional Specialised Meteorological Centre in Réunion. The first storm formed in mid-November, though it was not officially named. A few days later, the first official storm of the year (Anety) formed. In December, one storm formed. During January 1985, two tropical cyclones formed towards the end of the month. Three more systems developed in a short period of time in early to mid-February. After nearly two more months of inactivity, an unusually powerful late season storm developed (Helisaonina) in mid-April, which was the strongest storm of the year. While a number of storms during the season reached severe tropical storm status, only one of those intensified further. Even though two tropical cyclones this year made landfall, no known damage was recorded.

The 1982–83 South-West Indian Ocean cyclone season was least active cyclone season in the basin since 1961–1962. There were six systems that were named, although three of them – Arilisy, Clera, and Fely – failed to intensify beyond tropical depression status. No storms reached tropical cyclone status, according to the official warning agency for the basin, Météo-France, although the two strongest storms – Bemany and Elinah – peaked just below that intensity. The first named storm, Arilisy, formed on October 27, and dissipated without having affected land. However, the Joint Typhoon Warning Center (JTWC), which is an unofficial warning center for the basin, briefly tracked a tropical depression in July. The next storm was Bemany, which passed east of Mauritius near peak intensity in early December. Tropical Depression Clera existed briefly in the middle of September, and Tropical Storm Dadafy moved across the eastern portion of the basin in late December.

The 1986–87 South-West Indian Ocean cyclone season was below average due to an ongoing El Niño and a weak monsoon that suppressed convection and storms. There were only five named storms tracked by the Météo-France office (MFR) on Réunion. The United States-based Joint Typhoon Warning Center (JTWC) followed four other storms in the basin, which is the waters of the Indian Ocean south of the equator and west of 90° E to the coast of Africa. The JTWC tracked a storm on August 1 in the northeastern portion of the basin, unusual for the time of year. The first named storm was Severe Tropical Storm Alinina, which originated from the intertropical convergence zone east of Madagascar in the middle of January. However, there was an unnamed tropical depression that produced heavy rainfall in Réunion and Madagascar, causing two deaths in the latter country.

The 1993–94 South-West Indian Ocean cyclone season was the most active since the start of reliable satellite coverage in 1967, with 15 named storms including one named tropical depression. Activity lasted from mid-November, when Moderate Tropical Storm Alexina formed, until mid-April, when Tropical Cyclone Odille became extratropical. Four tropical cyclones – Daisy, Geralda, Litanne, and Nadia – struck eastern Madagascar, of which Geralda was the costliest and deadliest. With gusts as strong as 350 km/h (220 mph) accompanied by heavy rainfall, the cyclone destroyed more than 40,000 homes and left 356,000 people homeless. Geralda killed 231 people and left more than $10 million in damage. Cyclone Nadia was the second deadliest cyclone, having killed 12 people in northern Madagascar and later severely damaging portions of northeastern Mozambique, killing about 240 people and leaving $20 million in damage in the latter country. In February, Cyclone Hollanda struck Mauritius near peak intensity, causing $135 million in damage and two deaths.

The 1994–95 South-West Indian Ocean cyclone season was fairly active, with storms forming regularly from October through April. It was much less damaging than its predecessor, and most of the storms in the season remained over water or only brushed land. The first system was Tropical Depression A1, which formed in October and passed north of Madagascar. The first named storm was Albertine, which formed on November 23 in the northeastern portion of the basin and became one of three intense tropical cyclones. The last storm was Marlene, which was also an intense tropical cyclone and dissipated on April 11.

Cyclone Filao was a moderately intense tropical cyclone that caused widespread flooding in Mozambique in 1988. First classified as a tropical depression north of Madagascar, the system moved southwest, crossing the northern part of the nation before entering the Mozambique Channel on February 27, where it began to deepen. Later that day, the depression was upgraded into a moderate tropical storm. Two days later, Filao attained severe tropical storm intensity as it began to stall. On March 1, the storm reached cyclone intensity just before turning west. Later that day, Filao attained peak intensity, with winds of 135 km/h (85 mph) and a minimum barometric pressure of 954 mbar (hPa); 28.17 inHg. Within 24 hours, however, the system moved ashore near Quelimane in Central Mozambique, and several hours later, Filao dissipated inland.

Cyclone Leon–Eline in February 2000 was the third-longest tracked tropical cyclone in the South-West Indian Ocean. On February 1, a tropical low originated within the monsoon trough to the south of Indonesia, and would eventually become Tropical Cyclone Leon in the Australian basin. Moving westward, the storm fluctuated in strength due to changes in the atmosphere, mostly increasing and decreasing wind shear. After crossing 90° E, the Météo-France office in Réunion (MFR) began tracking the system as Tropical Storm Eline on February 8. The storm continued across the Indian Ocean and intensified greatly as it approached the east coast of Madagascar. Late on February 17, Eline made landfall near Mahanoro, with 10‑minute winds of 165 km/h (105 mph). The storm rapidly weakened over land, but restrengthened in the Mozambique Channel to reach peak 10‑minute winds of 185 km/h (115 mph). On February 22, Eline made landfall about 80 km (50 mi) south of Beira, Mozambique near peak intensity and quickly weakened over land. The well-defined circulation moved across southern Africa, finally dissipating over eastern Namibia on February 29.

References

↑ Christopher W Landsea; Hurricane Research Division (April 26, 2004). "Subject: D4) What does "maximum sustained wind" mean? How does it relate to gusts in tropical cyclones?". Frequently Asked Questions:. National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration's Atlantic Oceanographic and Meteorological Laboratory. Retrieved July 30, 2013.
↑ Kenneth R. Knapp; Michael C. Kruk; David H. Levinson; Howard J. Diamond; Charles J. Neumann (2010). 1997 JOSIE (1997032S17055). The International Best Track Archive for Climate Stewardship (IBTrACS): Unifying tropical cyclone best track data (Report). Bulletin of the American Meteorological Society. Retrieved January 15, 2014.
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 Guy Le Goff (1997). 1996-1997 Cyclone Season in the South-West Indian Ocean (Report). Météo-France . Retrieved August 15, 2013.
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 Kenneth R. Knapp; Michael C. Kruk; David H. Levinson; Howard J. Diamond; Charles J. Neumann (2010). 1997 LISETTE (1997056S16041). The International Best Track Archive for Climate Stewardship (IBTrACS): Unifying tropical cyclone best track data (Report). Bulletin of the American Meteorological Society. Retrieved July 20, 2013.
↑ Steve Newmann (March 11, 1997). "Earth Week a diary of the planet for the week ending March 7, 1997". Times Union. p. 10. Retrieved August 16, 2013.
↑ "The Receiving Environ Biophys Petronas EIA Report" (PDF). 1 (7). Environmental Resources Management. March 2010: 4. Retrieved August 16, 2013.
↑ "Ambiente de Base" (PDF). Anadarko (Mozambique PDF) (in Portuguese) (7): 4. 2007. Retrieved August 16, 2013. ^{[ permanent dead link ]}
↑ "Tropical storms". Milwaukee Journal Sentinel. March 11, 1997. p. 10. Retrieved August 16, 2013.
↑ Climate System Monitoring (CSM) Monthly Bulletin. World Climate Programme. 1997. p. 7.
1 2 Supreme Court of Appeal (PDF) (Mutual and Federal Limited v Rumdel Construction (Pty) Limited). South Africa Supreme Court. 2004. pp. 1, 2.
↑ Annual survey of South African law. University of the Witwatersrand. Faculty of Law. 2005. p. 155.
↑ João Paulo Borges Coelho (2002). "Estado, Comunidades e Calamidades Naturais no Moçambique Rural". Cues (in Portuguese). Calamidades Naturais em Moçambique Após a Independência. Retrieved August 16, 2013.
↑ "October 1996-April 1997: Southern Africa rainy season". United States National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration . United States Climate Prediction Center. 1997. Retrieved August 16, 2013.
↑ The Honey Guide. Rhodesian Ornithological Society. 1997. p. 11.
↑ Adriana Herrera Garibay Paul de Wit Luis Eleazar Fausto Jordán Bucheli Simon Norfolk Raúl Sánchez Mena Salma A. Shafi (2011). Land tenure and natural disasters (PDF) (Land tenure and natural disasters). Unihabitat. p. 12. Retrieved August 15, 2013.

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[1] Wind estimates from Météo-France and most other basins throughout the world are sustained over 10 minutes, while estimates from the United States-based Joint Typhoon Warning Center are sustained over 1 minute. 10 minute winds are about 1.14 times the amount of 1 minute winds used by the JTWC.^[1]

[FAQD4-2] Christopher W Landsea; Hurricane Research Division (April 26, 2004). "Subject: D4) What does "maximum sustained wind" mean? How does it relate to gusts in tropical cyclones?". Frequently Asked Questions:. National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration's Atlantic Oceanographic and Meteorological Laboratory. Retrieved July 30, 2013.

[3] Kenneth R. Knapp; Michael C. Kruk; David H. Levinson; Howard J. Diamond; Charles J. Neumann (2010). 1997 JOSIE (1997032S17055). The International Best Track Archive for Climate Stewardship (IBTrACS): Unifying tropical cyclone best track data (Report). Bulletin of the American Meteorological Society. Retrieved January 15, 2014.

[report-4] 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 Guy Le Goff (1997). 1996-1997 Cyclone Season in the South-West Indian Ocean (Report). Météo-France . Retrieved August 15, 2013.

[IBTRACS-5] 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 Kenneth R. Knapp; Michael C. Kruk; David H. Levinson; Howard J. Diamond; Charles J. Neumann (2010). 1997 LISETTE (1997056S16041). The International Best Track Archive for Climate Stewardship (IBTrACS): Unifying tropical cyclone best track data (Report). Bulletin of the American Meteorological Society. Retrieved July 20, 2013.

[TS2-6] Steve Newmann (March 11, 1997). "Earth Week a diary of the planet for the week ending March 7, 1997". Times Union. p. 10. Retrieved August 16, 2013.

[7] "The Receiving Environ Biophys Petronas EIA Report" (PDF). 1 (7). Environmental Resources Management. March 2010: 4. Retrieved August 16, 2013.

[8] "Ambiente de Base" (PDF). Anadarko (Mozambique PDF) (in Portuguese) (7): 4. 2007. Retrieved August 16, 2013. ^{[ permanent dead link ]}

[TS1-9] "Tropical storms". Milwaukee Journal Sentinel. March 11, 1997. p. 10. Retrieved August 16, 2013.

[WCP-10] Climate System Monitoring (CSM) Monthly Bulletin. World Climate Programme. 1997. p. 7.

[SA-11] 1 2 Supreme Court of Appeal (PDF) (Mutual and Federal Limited v Rumdel Construction (Pty) Limited). South Africa Supreme Court. 2004. pp. 1, 2.

[12] Annual survey of South African law. University of the Witwatersrand. Faculty of Law. 2005. p. 155.

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