Agricultural value chain

Last updated

An agricultural value chain is the integrated range of goods and services (value chain) necessary for an agricultural product to move from the producer to the final consumer. The concept has been used since the beginning of the millennium, primarily by those working in agricultural development in developing countries, although there is no universally accepted definition of the term.

Contents

Background

Value chain representation Typical-value-Chain.png
Value chain representation

The term value chain was first popularized in a book published in 1985 by Michael Porter, [1] who used it to illustrate how companies could achieve what he called “competitive advantage” by adding value within their organization. Subsequently, the term was adopted for agricultural development purposes [2] and has now become very much in vogue among those working in this field, with an increasing number of bilateral and multilateral aid organisations using it to guide their development interventions.

At the heart of the agricultural value chain concept is the idea of actors connected along a chain producing and delivering goods to consumers through a sequence of activities. [3] However, this “vertical” chain cannot function in isolation and an important aspect of the value chain approach is that it also considers “horizontal” impacts on the chain, such as input and finance provision, extension support and the general enabling environment. The approach has been found useful, particularly by donors, in that it has resulted in a consideration of all those factors impacting on the ability of farmers to access markets profitably, leading to a broader range of chain interventions. It is used both for upgrading existing chains and for donors to identify market opportunities for small farmers. [4]

Definitions

There is no commonly agreed definition of what is actually meant by agricultural value chains. Indeed, some agencies are using the term without having a workable definition or definitions and simply redefined ongoing activities as “value chain” work when the term came into vogue. [5] Published definitions include the World Bank’s “the term ‘’value chain’’ describes the full range of value adding activities required to bring a product or service through the different phases of production, including procurement of raw materials and other inputs”, [6] UNIDO’s “actors connected along a chain producing, transforming and bringing goods and services to end-consumers through a sequenced set of activities”, [7] and CIAT’s “a strategic network among a number of business organizations”. [8]

Without a universal definition, the term “value chain” is now being used to refer to a range of types of chain, including:

Value chain methodologies

Donors and others supporting agricultural development, such as FAO, World Bank, GIZ, DFID, ILO, IIED and UNIDO, have produced a range of documents designed to assist their staff and others to evaluate value chains in order to decide on the most appropriate interventions to either update existing chains or promote new ones. [7] [8] [10] [11] [12] [13] However, the application of value chain analysis is being interpreted differently by different organisations, with possible repercussions for their development impact. The proliferation of guides has taken place in an environment where key conceptual and methodological elements of value chain analysis and development are still evolving. [14] Many of these guides include not only detailed procedures that require experts to carry out the analysis but also use detailed quasi-academic methodologies. [3] One such methodology is to compare the same value chain over time (a comparative or panel study) to assess changes in rents, governance, systemic efficiency and the institutional framework. [15]

Linking farmers to markets

A major subset of value chain development work is concerned with ways of linking producers to companies, and hence into the value chains. [16] While there are examples of fully integrated value chains that do not involve smallholders (e.g. Unilever operates tea estates and tea processing facilities in Kenya and then blends and packs the tea in Europe before selling it as Lipton, Brooke Bond or PG Tips brands), the great bulk of agricultural value chains involve sales to companies from independent farmers. Such arrangements frequently involve contract farming in which the farmer undertakes to supply agreed quantities of a crop or livestock product, based on the quality standards and delivery requirements of the purchaser, often at a price that is established in advance. Companies often also agree to support the farmer through input supply, land preparation, extension advice and transporting produce to their premises. [17]

Inclusive value chains

Work to promote market linkages in developing countries is often based on the concept of “inclusive value chains”, which usually places emphasis on identifying possible ways in which small-scale farmers can be incorporated into existing or new value chains or can extract greater value from the chain, either by increasing efficiency or by also carrying out activities further along the chain. [18] In the various publications on the topic the definition of “inclusion” is often imprecise as it is often unclear whether the development aim is to include all farmers or only those best able to take advantage of the opportunities. [19] Emerging literature in the last two decades increasingly references the value of responsible sourcing or what are called "sustainable supply chains". [20] [21]

Sustainability in agricultural value chains

The private sector’s role in achieving sustainability has increasingly been recognized since the publication of Our Common Future (Brundtland Report) in 1987 by the World Commission on Environment and Development. More recently, the role of value chains has become very prominent and businesses are emerging as the primary catalyst for sustainability. Kevin Dooley, Chief Scientist of the Sustainability Consortium, claims that such market-based mechanisms are the most efficient and effective way to induce the adoption of sustainable practices. Still, there are concerns about whether value chains are really driving sustainability [22] or merely green-washing. [23]

These concepts can also be expanded or understood as power dynamics. In the last decade or so, hybrid forms of governance have emerged where business, civil society and public actors interact, and these multi-stakeholder approaches claim new concepts of legitimacy and even more likely sustainability. [24]  

Scholars including Michael Schmidt (Dean and Department Chair, University Brandenburg and Daniele Giovannucci (President of the Committee on Sustainability Assessment) consider that evidence is emerging on what makes a value chain sustainable. [25]

There is evidence too that global value chains that have an impact on the environment and the societies they serve such as farmers and suppliers can be effectively measured. The World Bank also supports the perspective that GVCs can be valuable for sustainable development and provides an array of examples and data. [26]

Agricultural value chain finance

Agricultural value chain finance is concerned with the flows of funds to and within a value chain to meet the needs of chain actors for finance, to secure sales, to buy inputs or produce, or to improve efficiency. Examining the potential for value chain finance involves a holistic approach to analyze the chain, those working in it, and their inter-linkages. These linkages allow financing to flow through the chain. For example, inputs can be provided to farmers and the cost can be repaid directly when the product is delivered, without need for farmers taking a loan from a bank or similar institution. [27] This is common under contract farming arrangements. Types of value chain finance include product financing through trader and input supplier credit or credit supplied by a marketing company or a lead firm. Other trade finance instruments include receivables financing where the bank advances funds against an assignment of future receivables from the buyer, and factoring in which a business sells its accounts receivable at a discount. Also falling under value chain finance are asset collateralization, such as on the basis of warehouse receipts, and risk mitigation, such as forward contracting, futures and insurance. [28]

The use of ICTs in value chains

Information and Communication Technologies, or ICTs, have become an important tool in promoting agricultural value chain efficiency. There has been a rapid expansion in the use of mobile technologies, in particular. The price of ICT services is falling and the technologies are becoming more affordable to many in developing countries. Applications can support farmers directly through SMS messages. Examples include iCow, [29] developed in Kenya, which provides information on the gestation period, on artificial insemination of the cows, and on how to look after them. Applications such as M-Pesa [30] can support access to mobile payment services for a large percentage of those without banks, thereby facilitating transactions in the value chain. Other applications have been developed to promote provision of crop insurance through input dealers, for example. [31]

ICTs are also being used to strengthen the capacity of agricultural extension officers and NGO field staff to reach farmers with timely and accurate information and, at the same time, help capture data from the field. The Grameen Foundation’s Community Knowledge Worker (CKW) programme is a small-scale example. [32] Farmer representatives are trained to use ICT applications on a smartphone to provide agricultural information and extension support. Other efforts include Lutheran World Relief’s Mobile Farmer and diverse efforts funded by the Bill and Melinda Gates Foundation in Africa. Most market price information is now delivered to farmers via SMS. Further along the chain, technologies offer considerable possibilities to enhance traceability, which is particularly relevant as certification grows in importance. Where necessary many exporters can now trace consignments back to individual farmers and take necessary measures to address problems. [33] Finally, systems such as eRails, promoted by the Forum for Agricultural Research in Africa, are also supporting agricultural researchers through data collection and analysis and access to up-to-date research publications. [34]

Enabling environments

As with all agricultural growth, two things appear essential for successful value chain development: creating the right environment for agriculture and investing in rural public goods. An enabling environment implies peace and public order, macro-economic stability, inflation under control, exchange rates based on market fundamentals rather than government allocation of foreign currency, predictable taxation that is reinvested in public goods and property rights. There is a positive correlation of agricultural growth with investment in irrigation, transport infrastructure and other technologies. [35] Governments have a responsibility to provide essential goods and services, infrastructure, such as rural roads, and agricultural research and extension. Value chain development is often constrained by corruption, both at a high level and at the ubiquitous road blocks found in many countries, particularly in Africa. Many measures to improve value chains require collaboration between a wide range of different ministries, and this can be difficult to achieve. [36]

See also

Related Research Articles

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Agricultural productivity</span> Quotient between production and productive factors

Agricultural productivity is measured as the ratio of agricultural outputs to inputs. While individual products are usually measured by weight, which is known as crop yield, varying products make measuring overall agricultural output difficult. Therefore, agricultural productivity is usually measured as the market value of the final output. This productivity can be compared to many different types of inputs such as labour or land. Such comparisons are called partial measures of productivity.

Good agricultural practice (GAP) is a certification system for agriculture, specifying procedures that must be implemented to create food for consumers or further processing that is safe and wholesome, using sustainable methods. While there are numerous competing definitions of what methods constitute good agricultural practice, there are several broadly accepted schemes that producers can adhere too.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Cash crop</span> Agricultural crop grown to sell for profit

A cash crop, also called profit crop, is an agricultural crop which is grown to sell for profit. It is typically purchased by parties separate from a farm. The term is used to differentiate marketed crops from staple crop in subsistence agriculture, which are those fed to the producer's own livestock or grown as food for the producer's family.

A value chain is a progression of activities that a firm operating in a specific industry performs in order to deliver a valuable product to the end customer. The concept comes through business management and was first described by Michael Porter in his 1985 best-seller, Competitive Advantage: Creating and Sustaining Superior Performance.

The idea of the value chain is based on the process view of organizations, the idea of seeing a manufacturing organization as a system, made up of subsystems each with inputs, transformation processes and outputs. Inputs, transformation processes, and outputs involve the acquisition and consumption of resources – money, labour, materials, equipment, buildings, land, administration and management. How value chain activities are carried out determines costs and affects profits.

Agribusiness is the industry, enterprises, and the field of study of value chains in agriculture and in the bio-economy, in which case it is also called bio-business or bio-enterprise. The primary goal of agribusiness is to maximize profit while satisfying the needs of consumers for products related to natural resources such as biotechnology, farms, food, forestry, fisheries, fuel, and fiber.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Carbon footprint</span> Concept to quantify greenhouse gas emissions from activities or products

A carbon footprint (or greenhouse gas footprint) is a calculated value or index that makes it possible to compare the total amount of greenhouse gases that an activity, product, company or country adds to the atmosphere. Carbon footprints are usually reported in tonnes of emissions (CO2-equivalent) per unit of comparison. Such units can be for example tonnes CO2-eq per year, per kilogram of protein for consumption, per kilometer travelled, per piece of clothing and so forth. A product's carbon footprint includes the emissions for the entire life cycle. These run from the production along the supply chain to its final consumption and disposal. Similarly an organization's carbon footprint includes the direct as well as the indirect emissions that it causes. The Greenhouse Gas Protocol that is used for carbon accounting of organizations calls these Scope 1, 2 and 3 emissions. There are several methodologies and online tools to calculate the carbon footprint. They depend on whether the focus is on a country, organization, product or individual person. For example, the carbon footprint of a product could help consumers decide which product to buy if they want to be climate aware. For climate change mitigation activities, the carbon footprint can help distinguish those economic activities with a high footprint from those with a low footprint. So the carbon footprint concept allows everyone to make comparisons between the climate impacts of individuals, products, companies and countries. It also helps people devise strategies and priorities for reducing the carbon footprint.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Smallholding</span> Small farm, often for a single family

A smallholding or smallholder is a small farm operating under a small-scale agriculture model. Definitions vary widely for what constitutes a smallholder or small-scale farm, including factors such as size, food production technique or technology, involvement of family in labor and economic impact. Smallholdings are usually farms supporting a single family with a mixture of cash crops and subsistence farming. As a country becomes more affluent, smallholdings may not be self-sufficient, but may be valued for the rural lifestyle. As the sustainable food and local food movements grow in affluent countries, some of these smallholdings are gaining increased economic viability. There are an estimated 500 million smallholder farms in developing countries of the world alone, supporting almost two billion people.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Technical Centre for Agricultural and Rural Cooperation ACP-EU (CTA)</span>

The Technical Centre for Agricultural and Rural Cooperation ACP-EU (CTA) was established in 1983 under the Lomé Convention between the African, Caribbean and Pacific Group of States and EU member states. Since 2000 CTA has operated within the framework of the ACP-EU Cotonou Agreement with a mission to “strengthen policy and institutional capacity development and information and communication management capacities of ACP agricultural and rural development organisations. It assists such organisations in formulating and implementing policies and programmes to reduce poverty, promote sustainable food security, preserve the natural resource base and thus contribute to building self-reliance in ACP rural and agricultural development.”. The centre is closed in 2020, after the end of the Cotonou Agreement and the subsequent end of its financing.

Information and communication technology in agriculture, also known as e-agriculture, focuses on the enhancement of agricultural and rural development through improved information and communication processes. More specifically, e-agriculture involves the conceptualization, design, development, evaluation and application of innovative ways to use information and communication technologies (ICTs) in the rural domain, with a primary focus on agriculture. ICT includes devices, networks, mobiles, services and applications; these range from innovative Internet-era technologies and sensors to other pre-existing aids such as fixed telephones, televisions, radios and satellites. Provisions of standards, norms, methodologies, and tools as well as development of individual and institutional capacities, and policy support are all key components of e-agriculture.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">International Development Enterprises</span>

iDE, formerly International Development Enterprises, is an international nonprofit organization that promotes a business approach to increasing income and creating livelihood opportunities for poor rural households. iDE was founded in 1982 by Paul Polak, a Denver, Colorado psychiatrist who promoted the concept of helping poor people become entrepreneurs instead of simply giving them handouts. Originally, iDE was devoted to the manufacture, marketing, and distribution of affordable, scalable micro-irrigation and low-cost water recovery systems throughout the developing world. iDE facilitates local manufacture and distribution of these products through local supply chains that sell to farmers at an affordable price which they can repay in one growing season. This strategy allows farmers to grow higher value and surplus crops, and in turn links them to high-value crop markets where they can realize profits from their higher yields. Recently, their success is in the promotion of sanitation products to decrease the practice of open defecation leading to diarrheal disease.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Agricultural marketing</span> Process of moving agricultural products from the farm to the consumer

Agricultural marketing covers the services involved in moving an agricultural product from the farm to the consumer. These services involve the planning, organizing, directing and handling of agricultural produce in such a way as to satisfy farmers, intermediaries and consumers. Numerous interconnected activities are involved in doing this, such as planning production, growing and harvesting, grading, packing and packaging, transport, storage, agro- and food processing, provision of market information, distribution, advertising and sale. Effectively, the term encompasses the entire range of supply chain operations for agricultural products, whether conducted through ad hoc sales or through a more integrated chain, such as one involving contract farming.

Market information systems are information systems used in gathering, analyzing and disseminating information about prices and other information relevant to farmers, animal rearers, traders, processors and others involved in handling agricultural products. Market information systems play an important role in agro-industrialisation and food supply chains. With the advance of information and communication technologies for development (ICTs) in developing countries, the income- generation opportunities offered by market information systems have been sought by international development organizations, non-governmental organizations (NGOs) and businesses alike.

Purchase for Progress (P4P) is an initiative of the United Nations World Food Programme (WFP), involving over 500 partnerships, including Bill & Melinda Gates Foundation, the Howard G. Buffett Foundation, FAO, ACDI/VOCA, TechnoServe and others. Launched in September 2008 as a five-year pilot, P4P sought to explore programming and procurement modalities with the greatest potential to stimulate agricultural and market development in ways that maximized benefits to smallholder farmers. The program, largely developed by the eleventh Executive Director of the WFP, Josette Sheeran, arose as the WFP desired to purchase food in a way that was part of the "solution to hunger". These efforts are aligned with recommendations issued by the UN Committee on Economic, Social and Cultural Rights that call for an establishment of programs in support of socially vulnerable groups. and to the Zero Hunger Challenge launched by the UN Secretary General Ban Ki-moon. Special UN Reporter 2012–2014, Olivier De Schutter, claimed that public procurement systems favour economically-strong bidders, thus excluding smallholder farmers. His conclusion was that public procurement schemes supportive of smallholders could have "powerful impacts on the reduction of rural poverty." P4P is built upon this very principle as it enables low-income farmers to supply food to the WFP's operations. Eventually the transaction can be regulated by a forward contract, with the farmer agreeing in selling in the future a certain amount of output at a fixed price. Essentially, the P4P program aims to create a wide and sophisticate market for commodities in developing countries.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Committee on Sustainability Assessment</span>

The Committee on Sustainability Assessment (COSA) is a global consortium of development institutions that work collaboratively to advance sustainability learning with systematic and science-based measurement. COSA applies a pragmatic and collective approach for using scientific methods to develop indicators, tools, and technologies to measure the distinct social, environmental, and economic impacts and are applied in performance monitoring, evaluation, return on investment (ROI) calculation, and impact assessment. COSA has a public mission to open its scientific methods and metrics up to widespread use.

Ghana'sMinistry of Food and Agriculture (MOFA) is the government agency responsible for the development and growth of agriculture in the country. The jurisdiction does not cover the cocoa, coffee, or forestry sectors. The primary organisation and main area of the presidential administration of Ghana is the nation's Ministry of Food and Agriculture (MOFA), which is in charge of creating and carrying out policies and plans for the agricultural sector within the framework of an efficient national socio-economic development and prosperity agenda. The Ministry's plans and programmes are created, coordinated, and put into effect using frameworks for policy and strategy using a sector-wide approach. The Food and Agriculture Sector Development Policy II and the Medium Term Agriculture Sector Investment Plan were both developed with the aid of MOFA in relation to this.

Contract farming involves agricultural production being carried out on the basis of an agreement between the buyer and farm producers. Sometimes it involves the buyer specifying the quality required and the price, with the farmer agreeing to deliver at a future date. More commonly, however, contracts outline conditions for the production of farm products and for their delivery to the buyer's premises. The farmer undertakes to supply agreed quantities of a crop or livestock product, based on the quality standards and delivery requirements of the purchaser. In return, the buyer, usually a company, agrees to buy the product, often at a price that is established in advance. The company often also agrees to support the farmer through, e.g., supplying inputs, assisting with land preparation, providing production advice and transporting produce to its premises. The term "outgrower scheme" is sometimes used synonymously with contract farming, most commonly in Eastern and Southern Africa. Contract farming can be used for many agricultural products, although in developing countries it is less common for staple crops such as rice and maize.

A global value chain (GVC) refers to the full range of activities that economic actors engage in to bring a product to market. The global value chain does not only involve production processes, but preproduction and postproduction processes.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Raphie Kaplinsky</span> English professor

Raphael Malcolm Kaplinsky is a professorial fellow, Science Policy Research Unit, and emeritus professorial fellow, Institute of Development Studies, University of Sussex. He was one of the leaders of 1968 Mafeje affair protest.

Digital agriculture, sometimes known as smart farming or e-agriculture, is tools that digitally collect, store, analyze, and share electronic data and/or information in agriculture. The Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations has described the digitalization process of agriculture as the digital agricultural revolution. Other definitions, such as those from the United Nations Project Breakthrough, Cornell University, and Purdue University, also emphasize the role of digital technology in the optimization of food systems.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Agrifood systems</span>

Agrifood systems encompass the primary production of food and non-food agricultural products, as well as in food storage, aggregation, post-harvest handling, transportation, processing, distribution, marketing, disposal and consumption. Within agrifood systems, food systems comprise all food products that originate from crop and livestock production, forestry, fisheries and aquaculture, and from other sources such as synthetic biology, and that are intended for human consumption.

References

  1. ↑ Porter, Michael E. (1998). Competitive advantage: creating and sustaining superior performance; with a new introduction (1st Free Press ed.). New York: Free Press. ISBN   978-0684841465.
  2. ↑ Kaplinsky, R.; Morris, M. "A Handbook for Value Chain Analysis" (PDF). IDRC. Archived from the original (PDF) on 1 March 2014. Retrieved 24 February 2014.
  3. 1 2 Henriksen, L.; L. Riisgaard; S. Ponte; F. Hartwich; P. Kormawa. "Agro-Food Value Chain Interventions in Asia: A review and analysis of case studies. Working Paper" (PDF). UNIDO. Archived from the original (PDF) on 1 March 2014. Retrieved 24 February 2014.
  4. ↑ "Editorial: Adding Value, by Michael Hailu, Spore No 157". Archived from the original on 2021-02-26. Retrieved 2014-02-25.
  5. ↑ Andreas Stamm and Christian von Drachenfels “Value Chain Development: Approaches and activities by seven UN agencies and opportunities for interagency cooperation” ILO
  6. ↑ Webber, C. M.; P. Labaste. "Building competitiveness in Africa's agriculture: A guide to value chain concepts and applications" (PDF). World Bank. Retrieved 25 February 2014.
  7. 1 2 Riisgaard, L; S. Ponte. "Pro-poor value chain development: 25 guiding questions for designing and implementing agroindustry projects" (PDF). UNIDO. Archived from the original (PDF) on 31 October 2014. Retrieved 25 February 2014.
  8. 1 2 Lundy, M.; M. V. Gottret; C. Ostertag; R. Best; S. Ferris. "Participatory market chain analysis for smallholder producers". CIAT. Archived from the original on 2009-12-25.
  9. ↑ European Parliament, Global cotton value chain: European Parliament resolution of 14 March 2013 on sustainability in the global cotton value chain (2012/2841(RSP)), accessed 24 April 2021
  10. ↑ Springer-Heinze, A. "Valuelinks: The methodology of value chain promotion". GIZ. Archived from the original on 1 March 2014. Retrieved 24 February 2014.
  11. ↑ DFID. "The operational guide for the making markets work for the poor (M4P)". DFID. Archived from the original on 2018-11-16. Retrieved 2014-02-25.
  12. ↑ Vermeulen, S.; J. Woodhill; F. Proctor; R. Delnoye. "Chain-wide learning for inclusive agrifood market development". IIED. Archived from the original on 6 October 2008. Retrieved 25 February 2014.
  13. ↑ Herr, M. L.; T. J. Muzira. "Value chain development for decent work". ILO. Archived from the original on 13 May 2013. Retrieved 25 February 2014.
  14. ↑ J. Donovan; M. Cunha; S. Franzel; A. Gyau; D. Mithöfer. "Guides for value chain development: A comparative review" (PDF). CTA and ICRAF. Retrieved 24 February 2014.
  15. ↑ Prowse, M. and J. Moyer-Lee (2014) ‘A Comparative Value Chain Analysis of Smallholder Burley Tobacco Production in Malawi, 2003/4 and 2009/10’ Journal of Agrarian Change 14:3 https://lucris.lub.lu.se/ws/files/2140085/5218863.pdf
  16. ↑ Shepherd, Andrew. "Approaches to linking producers to markets" (PDF). FAO. Retrieved 16 October 2023.
  17. ↑ Eaton, C; Shepherd, A. "Contract farming: Partnerships for Growth" (PDF). FAO. Retrieved 25 February 2014.
  18. ↑ Haggblade, S.; Theriault, V.; Staatz, J.; Dembele, N.; Diallo, B. "A conceptual framework for promoting inclusive agricultural value chains" (PDF). Michigan State University and IFAD. Archived from the original (PDF) on 10 August 2013. Retrieved 25 February 2014.
  19. ↑ Shepherd, A. (5 November 2016). Including small-scale farmers in profitable value chains (PDF). Wageningen, The Netherlands: CTA Publishing. ISBN   978-92-9081-607-2 . Retrieved 18 April 2017.
  20. ↑ Kaplinsky, Raphael (2000). "Globalisation and unequalisation: what can be learned from value chain analysis?". Journal of Development Studies. 37 (2): 117–146. doi:10.1080/713600071. S2CID   154941945.
  21. ↑ Gereffi; Kaplinsky, Raphael; Gary (2001). "Introduction: Globalisation, value chains and development" (PDF). IDS Bulletin. 32 (3): 1–8. doi:10.1111/j.1759-5436.2001.mp32003001.x.{{cite journal}}: CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link)
  22. ↑ Lyon, Thomas P.; Maxwell, John W. (2011). "Greenwash: Corporate environmental disclosure under threat of audit". Journal of Economics & Management Strategy. 20 (1): 3–41. doi:10.1111/j.1530-9134.2010.00282.x. S2CID   2593420.
  23. ↑ Greenwash: Big brands and carbon scams. 2012.
  24. ↑ Business, Power and Sustainability in a World of Global Value Chains: A History of Power, Politics and Profit.
  25. ↑ Sustainable Global Value Chains. Natural Resource Management in Transition, Vol. 2. Springer-Verlag, Berlin Heidelberg.
  26. ↑ "Trading for Development in the Age of Global Value Chains" (PDF). Open Knowledge Repository .
  27. ↑ FAO. "Value chain finance". Archived from the original on 8 November 2013. Retrieved 25 February 2014.
  28. ↑ Miller, C.; Jones, L. "Agricultural Value Chain Finance: Tools and Lessons" (PDF). FAO and Practical Action. Retrieved 25 February 2014.
  29. ↑ "What is iCOW?" . Retrieved 11 March 2014.
  30. ↑ "M-PESA: Kenya's Mobile Wallet Revolution". BBC News. 22 November 2010. Retrieved 11 March 2014.
  31. ↑ "Innovative insurance by mobile". New Internationalist. Retrieved 11 March 2014.
  32. ↑ "Community knowledge worker". Grameen Foundation. Archived from the original on 11 March 2014. Retrieved 11 March 2014.
  33. ↑ Moyer-Lee, J. and M. Prowse (2015) ‘How Traceability is Restructuring Malawi’s Tobacco Industry’ Development Policy Review 33:2 http://web.unitn.it/files/download/34693/moyer-leeandprowse2012iobworkingpaper-traceabilityandtobaccoinmalawi.pdf Archived 2017-08-09 at the Wayback Machine
  34. ↑ "The African Portal on Agriculture". Archived from the original on 13 March 2014. Retrieved 11 March 2014.
  35. ↑ Wiggins, Steve. "African agriculture in a changing global context: lessons learned" (PDF). CTA. Retrieved 16 March 2014.
  36. ↑ Pye-Smith, Charlie. Policy Pointer: Value Chains for transforming smallholder agriculture (PDF). Wageningen, Netherlands: CTA. pp. 15–19.
This page is based on this Wikipedia article
Text is available under the CC BY-SA 4.0 license; additional terms may apply.
Images, videos and audio are available under their respective licenses.