Airworthiness

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Bleriot XI, civil registration G-AANG. Built in 1909 and operated by the Shuttleworth Collection in the United Kingdom, this is the world's oldest airworthy aircraft G-AANG (8087399113).jpg
Blériot XI, civil registration G-AANG. Built in 1909 and operated by the Shuttleworth Collection in the United Kingdom, this is the world's oldest airworthy aircraft

In aviation, airworthiness is the measure of an aircraft's suitability for safe flight. Initial airworthiness is demonstrated by a certificate of airworthiness issued by the civil aviation authority in the state in which the aircraft is registered, and continuing airworthiness is achieved by performing the required maintenance actions. [1]

Contents

Certification is based on standards applied by civil aviation authorities. Interoperability is served when national benchmarks adopt standards from international civil and military organizations such as International Civil Aviation Organization (ICAO), European Aviation Safety Agency (EASA), NATO and European Defence Agency (EDA).

In the U.S., Title 14, Code of Federal Regulations, Subchapter F, Part 91.7 states: "a) No person may operate an aircraft unless it is in an airworthy condition. b) The pilot in command of a civil aircraft is responsible for determining whether that aircraft is in condition for safe flight. The pilot in command shall discontinue the flight when unairworthy mechanical, electrical, or structural conditions occur which compromise the airworthiness."

Jurisdictional heterogeneity

One airworthiness regulation is found in ICAO international standard of Annex 8 to Chicago Convention on International Civil Aviation which defines "airworthy" - in respect of an aircraft, engine, propeller or part there of - as "The status of an aircraft, engine, propeller or part when it conforms to its approved design and is in a condition for safe operation". The application of airworthiness defines the condition of an aircraft and its suitability for flight, in that it has been designed with engineering rigor, constructed, maintained and is expected to be operated to approved standards and limitations, by competent and approved individuals, who are acting as members of an approved organization and whose work is both certified as correct and accepted on behalf of the state of aircraft registry.

Apart from this organization, there are other ones like Federal Aviation Administration(FAA) or EASA that establish their own rules. In the case of the FAA, the regulation of airworthiness is found in Title 14 in the collected Code of Federal Regulations. The EASA specifications are found in several regulations: as nº 216/2008 (Basic Regulations), nº 748/2012 (Initial Airworthiness), nº 2015/640 (Additional specifications about airworthiness) and nº 1321/2014 (Continuing airworthiness). [2]

European Regulation

In the regulation (UE) nº216/2008, common rules in the aviation sector are established and created the European Aviation Safety Agency. Article 5 of this regulation details the first specifications about airworthiness. Article 20 is about airworthy certification. [3]

The main objective of these rules are to establish and to maintain a high and uniform security level at the civil aviation in Europe. For that reason, it lays down different rules according to the airworthiness:

Initial airworthiness

The Regulation (EU) No. 748/2012 establishes the dispositions of application on the airworthiness and environmental certification of aircraft and related products, components and equipment, as well as the certification of design and production organizations. [4]

Besides of the technical requirements and common administratives procedures by the airworthiness and environmental certification, the following aspects can be found too in regulation nº 748/2012:

This regulation contains an annex, Part-21, which specifies the requirements and procedures for the certification of aircraft and related products, components and equipment, and design and production organizations. Apart from this annex, there are also several certification specifications, including CS-25, for large aircraft, and CS-23, for medium and small aircraft.

In application, airworthiness standards include a probability of loss of aircraft (PLOA) that is designed to be controllable (PLOAdc) as an overall attribute. [5] Setting a sufficiently robust PLOA factor for the aircraft's ability to safely attain, sustain, and terminate flight protects the souls on board. An aircraft safe enough to carry human life is presumed safe to fly over people on the ground. For "airworthiness regulations [that] serve to protect people onboard the aircraft . . . the protection of persons and property on the ground [is] another benefit. [6] "

However, for unmanned aircraft, airworthiness must only address the safety of people on the ground and not the aircraft itself. This changes the assessment of risks and hazards, allowing a new approach that accounts for risk and consequence in the setting of airworthiness requirements. For military unmanned aircraft, France developed an unmanned-unique airworthiness concept, later adapted by NATO, that isolates failures catastrophic to human life. The concept later came to be described as the "Cumulative Probability of all Catastrophic Failure Conditions" or (PCumCat). Here, two outcomes are addressed.

First, an airworthiness issue arises from an uncontrolled crash, which is defined as a condition resulting from one or a combination of failure conditions that prevents the flight control system from controlling and maneuvering the aircraft until the impact on the ground AEP-4671 [7] page A-5. To be certified to fly over any population density, an hypothetical uncontrolled crash assumes that human life at the point of impact is lost.

In the second outcome, a forced landing or recovery at a predefined and unpopulated area is defined as a condition resulting from one or a combination of failure conditions that prevents the UAV from landing on its planned main landing site, although the flight control system is still able to control and maneuver the UAV. (see AEP-4671, page 1-F-19, U1413 & page A-2). While the aircraft may be lost, residual maneuverability directing to an unpopulated point of impact means this alternative is not catastrophic and therefore not an airworthiness factor. Though the aircraft may be lost or considered a hull loss, the flight has been safely terminated.

Additional airworthiness specifications

The Regulation (EU) nº 2015/640 establishes additional airworthiness specifications for operations and contains two annexes. The Annex I (Part 26), Subpart A, is devoted to general provisions on the appropriate authority, temporarily inoperative equipment and demonstration of conformity. Subpart B of the aforementioned annex focuses on large aircraft and contains specifications related to seats, berths, seat belts and harnesses; location, access and markings of emergency exits; emergency interior lighting and operation of emergency lights; interiors hold; flammability of the coatings of cargo compartments; fire protection for toilets; acoustic warning of the landing gear and systems for opening and closing the flight crew compartment door - incapacitation of a crew member. Annex II contains an amendment to Annex III (part ORO) of Regulation (EU) No. 965/2012. [8]

Maintaining airworthiness

The Regulation (EU) No. 1321/2014 controls the continuing of the airworthiness of aircraft and aeronautical products, components and equipment and the approval of the organizations and staff who involve in these tasks. It contains 7 annexes, although Annex V has been repealed.

Annex I (Part M); Section A (Technical requirements), "establishes the measures that must be taken to ensure the continuing of airworthiness, including maintenance. Moreover, it specifies the conditions that must be achieved by the people or organizations involved in the management of airworthiness maintenance." Section B (Procedures for the competent authority) "establishes the administrative procedures to be followed by the competent authority for the application and enforcement of Section A of Part M." [9]

The Annex II (Part 145); Section A (Technical requirements), "establishes the requirements which an organization must obey to be able to award or maintain a continuing approval of the elements and aircraft." The Section B (Procedures for Competent Administration) "establishes the administrative procedures that must be followed by the competent authority to execute its tasks and responsibilities in connection with the concession, modification, suspension or revocation of approvals of maintenance organizations Part 145."

The Annex III (Part 66); Section A (Technical requirements), "define the aircraft continuing license and set the requirements for its application, dispatch and continuity of its validity." The Section B (Procedures for the competent authority) "establishes the procedures, requirements, administrative requirements, measurement and control of compliance with Section A of Part 66."

The Annex IV (Part 147); Section A (Technical requirements), "establishes the requirements that must be fulfilled by the organizations that request authorization to carry out training courses and specific examinations in Part 66." Section B (Procedures for competent administration) "establishes the administrative requirements that must be followed by the competent authorities for the application of section A of this part."

The Annex V bis (Part T); Section A (Technical requirements), "establishes the requirements to ensure maintenance of the continuing airworthiness of the aircraft referred to in Article 1, letter b), in accordance with the fundamental requirements set out in Annex IV of the Regulations (EC) No. 216/2008. The conditions to be had by the people and organizations responsible for managing the maintenance of airworthiness and the maintenance of the aircraft in question are also specified." The Section B (Procedures for Competent Authorities) "establishes the administrative procedures that must be followed by the competent authorities in charge of the application and compliance of Section A of Part T."

The Annex VI contains a table of correspondence between Regulation (EC) No. 2042/2003 and these regulations.

FAA regulations

The USA Federal Aviation Regulations, Part 21, §21.183(d) has a procedural definition of airworthy:
"other aircraft An applicant for a standard airworthiness certificate for aircraft not covered by paragraphs (a) through (c) (a:"New aircraft manufactured under a production certificate." b:"New aircraft manufactured under type certificate only." c:"Import aircraft.") of this section is entitled to a standard airworthiness certificate if -- (1) He presents evidence to the Administrator that the aircraft conforms to a type design approved under a type certificate or a supplemental type certificate and to applicable Airworthiness Directives; (2) The aircraft (except an experimentally certificated aircraft that previously had been issued a different airworthiness certificate under this section) has been inspected in accordance with the performance rules for 100-hour inspections set forth in part 43.15 of this chapter and found airworthy by-- (i)The manufacturer; (ii)The holder of a repair station certificate as provided in part 145 of this chapter; (iii)The holder of a mechanic certificate as authorized in part 65 of this chapter; (v)The holder of a certificate issued under part 121 of this chapter, and having a maintenance and inspection organization appropriate to the aircraft type; and (3)The Administrator finds after inspection, that the aircraft conforms to the type design, and is in condition for safe operation."

An example of an aircraft that was not legally airworthy is the one used in the Lawnchair Larry flight in 1982.

The definition of the term "Airworthy" was never included in the Code of Federal Regulations until the 14 CFR Part 3, General Requirements, was established. The definition was included in the guidance, such as Advisory Circulars and Orders, but never in the Rule. Part 3 defines an Airworthy aircraft as one that conforms to its type design and is in a condition for safe flight.

A more generic and non-process oriented definition of airworthiness is in JSP553 Military Airworthiness Regulations (2006) Edition 1 Change 5:

The ability of an aircraft or other airborne equipment or system to operate without significant hazard to aircrew, ground crew, passengers (where relevant) or to the general public over which such airborne systems are flown

This definition applies equally to civil and military aircraft. [10] An example of a method used to delineate "significant hazard" is a risk reduction technique used by the military and used widely throughout engineering known as ALARP (As Low As Reasonably Practicable). This is defined as:

‘The principle, used in the application of the Health and Safety at Work Act, that safety should be improved beyond the baseline criteria so far as is reasonably practicable. A risk is ALARP when it has been demonstrated that the cost of any further Risk reduction, where cost includes the loss of capability as well as financial or other resource costs, is grossly disproportionate to the benefit obtained from that Risk reduction.’

In the U.S. Code of Federal Regulations, Title 14, Part 23, § 23.200, states, for the purposes of this part, the following definition applies: "Continued safe flight and landing means an airplane is capable of continued controlled flight and landing, possibly using emergency procedures, without requiring exceptional pilot skill or strength. Upon landing, some airplane damage may occur as a result of a failure condition."

Canadian regulations

In Canada Canadian Aviation Regulations, CAR 101.01, Subpart 1 - Interpretation Content last revised: 2007/12/30
"airworthy" - in respect of an aeronautical product, means in a fit and safe state for flight and in conformity with its type design.

See also

Related Research Articles

The Federal Aviation Regulations (FARs) are rules prescribed by the Federal Aviation Administration (FAA) governing all aviation activities in the United States. The FARs comprise Title 14 of the Code of Federal Regulations (CFR). A wide variety of activities are regulated, such as aircraft design and maintenance, typical airline flights, pilot training activities, hot-air ballooning, lighter-than-air aircraft, man-made structure heights, obstruction lighting and marking, model rocket launches, commercial space operations, model aircraft operations, Unmanned Aircraft Systems (UAS) and kite flying. The rules are designed to promote safe aviation, protecting pilots, flight attendants, passengers and the general public from unnecessary risk.

The Joint Aviation Authorities (JAA) was an associated body of the European Civil Aviation Conference representing the civil aviation regulatory authorities of a number of European States who had agreed to co-operate in developing and implementing common safety regulatory standards and procedures. It was not a regulatory body, regulation being achieved through the member authorities. It was in existence from 1970 until disbanded in 2009. Its headquarters were located in Hoofddorp near Schiphol airport in Netherlands.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Civil Aviation Authority (United Kingdom)</span> British aviation regulator

The Civil Aviation Authority (CAA) is the statutory corporation which oversees and regulates all aspects of civil aviation in the United Kingdom. Its areas of responsibility include:

<span class="mw-page-title-main">European Union Aviation Safety Agency</span> European Union civil aviation authority

The European Union Aviation Safety Agency (EASA) is an agency of the European Union (EU) with responsibility for civil aviation safety. It carries out certification, regulation and standardisation and also performs investigation and monitoring. It collects and analyses safety data, drafts and advises on safety legislation and co-ordinates with similar organisations in other parts of the world.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Convention on International Civil Aviation</span> International treaty that established the ICAO

The Convention on International Civil Aviation, also known as the Chicago Convention, established the International Civil Aviation Organization (ICAO), a specialized agency of the United Nations charged with coordinating international air travel. The Convention establishes rules of airspace, aircraft registration and safety, security, and sustainability, and details the rights of the signatories in relation to air travel. The Convention also contains provisions pertaining to taxation.

A standard certificate of airworthiness is a permit for commercial passenger or cargo operation, issued for an aircraft by the civil aviation authority in the state/nation in which the aircraft is registered. For other aircraft such as crop-sprayers, a Special Airworthiness Certificate must be issued.

Pilot licensing or certification refers to permits for operating aircraft. Flight crew licences are issued by the civil aviation authority of each country, which must establish that the holder has met minimum knowledge and experience before issuing licences. The licence, along with the required class or type rating, allows a pilot to fly aircraft registered in the licence issuing state.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Type certificate</span> Document noting the airworthiness of a certain type of aircraft

A type certificate signifies the airworthiness of a particular category of aircraft, according to its manufacturing design. Certification confirms that the aircraft of a new type intended for serial production, is in compliance with applicable airworthiness requirements established by the national air law.

An Airworthiness Directive is a notification to owners and operators of certified aircraft that a known safety deficiency with a particular model of aircraft, engine, avionics or other system exists and must be corrected.

Parts Manufacturer Approval (PMA) is an approval granted by the United States Federal Aviation Administration (FAA) to a manufacturer of aircraft parts.

In aviation safety, master minimum equipment list, or MMEL, is a categorized list of on-board systems, instruments and equipment that may be inoperative for flight in a specified aircraft model. Procedures or conditions may be associated with items on the list. Any airworthiness-related equipment or system not on the list must be functional for flight.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Type rating</span> Certification of an airplane pilot to fly a certain type of aircraft

A type rating is an authorization entered on or associated with a pilot license and forming part thereof, stating the pilot's privileges or limitations pertaining to certain aircraft type. Such qualification requires additional training beyond the scope of the initial license and aircraft class training.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Aircraft maintenance</span> Performance of tasks which maintain an aircrafts airworthiness

Aircraft maintenance is the performance of tasks required to ensure the continuing airworthiness of an aircraft or aircraft part, including overhaul, inspection, replacement, defect rectification, and the embodiment of modifications, compliance with airworthiness directives and repair.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Civil Aviation Authority of Bangladesh</span>

Civil Aviation Authority of Bangladesh (CAAB) functions as the regulatory body for all aviation related activities in Bangladesh. It is the civil aviation authority operating under the Ministry of Civil Aviation & Tourism. All nine operational airports are operated by the CAAB. A member of International Civil Aviation Organization, it has signed bilateral air transport agreement with 52 states. It is headquartered in Kurmitola, Dhaka.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Air operator's certificate</span> Approval by civil aviation authorities to operate aircraft for commercial purposes

An air operator's certificate (AOC) is the approval granted by a civil aviation authority (CAA) to an aircraft operator to allow it to use aircraft for commercial purposes. This requires the operator to have personnel, assets, and system in place to ensure the safety of its employees, and the general public. The certificate will list the aircraft types, and registrations to be used, for what purpose and in what area – specific airports or geographic region.

A civil aviation authority (CAA) is a national or supranational statutory authority that oversees the regulation of civil aviation, including the maintenance of an aircraft register.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Directorate General of Civil Aviation (India)</span> National civil aviation authority of the Government of India

The Directorate General of Civil Aviation (DGCA) is a statutory body of the Government of India to regulate civil aviation in India. It became a statutory body under the Aircraft (Amendment) Act, 2020. The DGCA investigates aviation accidents and incidents, maintains all regulations related to aviation and is responsible for issuance of licenses pertaining to aviation like PPL's, SPL's and CPL's in India. It is headquartered along Sri Aurobindo Marg, opposite Safdarjung Airport, in New Delhi. The Government of India is planning to replace the organisation with a Civil Aviation Authority (CAA), modelled on the lines of the American Federal Aviation Administration (FAA).

The General Civil Aviation Authority (GCAA) is the civil aviation authority of the United Arab Emirates (UAE). Its head office is in Al Rawdah, Abu Dhabi.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">AC 25.1309-1</span> American aviation regulatory document

AC 25.1309–1 is an FAA Advisory Circular (AC) that identifies acceptable means for showing compliance with the airworthiness requirements of § 25.1309 of the Federal Aviation Regulations. Revision A was releases in 1988. In 2002, work was done on Revision B, but it was not formally released; the result is the Rulemaking Advisory Committee-recommended revision B-Arsenal Draft (2002). The Arsenal Draft is "considered to exist as a relatively mature draft". The FAA and EASA have subsequently accepted proposals by type certificate applicants to use the Arsenal Draft on development programs.

Continuing airworthiness management organisation (CAMO) is a civil aviation organization authorized to schedule and control continuing airworthiness activities on aircraft and their parts

References

  1. ↑ Wragg, David W. (1974). A Dictionary of Aviation (1st American ed.). New York: Frederick Fell, Inc. p. 32. ISBN   0-85045-163-9.
  2. ↑ "Regulations". EASA. Retrieved 13 May 2018.PD-icon.svg This article incorporates text from this source, which is in the public domain .
  3. ↑ "REGLAMENTO (CE) No 216/2008 DEL PARLAMENTO EUROPEO Y DEL CONSEJO de 20 de febrero de 2008 sobre normas comunes en el ámbito de la aviación civil y por el que se crea una Agencia Europea de Seguridad Aérea, y se deroga la Directiva 91/670/CEE del Consejo, el Reglamento (CE) no 1592/2002 y la Directiva 2004/36/CE (Texto pertinente a efectos del EEE)". 2008R0216 — ES — 29.01.2013 — 003.005 — 1. Retrieved 13 May 2018.PD-icon.svg This article incorporates text from this source, which is in the public domain .
  4. ↑ "REGLAMENTO (UE) No 748/2012 DE LA COMISIÓN de 3 de agosto de 2012 por el que se establecen las disposiciones de aplicación sobre la certificación de aeronavegabilidad y medioambiental de las aeronaves y los productos, componentes y equipos relacionados con ellas, así como sobre la certificación de las organizaciones de diseño y de producción (refundición)". Regulation nº 748/2012. Retrieved 13 May 2018.PD-icon.svg This article incorporates text from this source, which is in the public domain .
  5. ↑ "EMACC Handbook" (PDF). eda.europa.eu. 1 February 2018. Retrieved 22 April 2023.
  6. ↑ "Expanding the Envelope of UAS Certification: What it Takes to Type Certify a UAS for Precision Agricultural Spraying" (PDF). 2 May 2016.
  7. ↑ AEP-4671 EDB V1 E.(STANAG 4671) 2 Apr 2019
  8. ↑ "COMMISSION REGULATION (EU) 2015/640 of 23 April 2015" . Retrieved 14 May 2018.PD-icon.svg This article incorporates text from this source, which is in the public domain .
  9. ↑ "Commission Regulation (EU) No 1321/2014 of 26 November 2014" . Retrieved 14 May 2018.PD-icon.svg This article incorporates text from this source, which is in the public domain .
  10. ↑ L. Purton & K. Kourousis (2014). "Military Airworthiness Management Frameworks: A Critical Review". Procedia Engineering. 80: 545–564. doi: 10.1016/j.proeng.2014.09.111 .
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