Ancient Greek military personal equipment

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A Greek hoplite with muscle cuirass, spear, shield, Corinthian helmet and sheathed sword. Athenian hoplite.jpg
A Greek hoplite with muscle cuirass, spear, shield, Corinthian helmet and sheathed sword.

Ancient Greek weapons and armor were primarily geared towards combat between individuals. Their primary technique was called the phalanx, a formation consisting of massed shield wall, which required heavy frontal armor and medium-ranged weapons such as spears. [1] Soldiers were required to provide their own panoply, which could prove expensive, [2] however the lack of any official peace-keeping force meant that most Greek citizens carried weapons as a matter of course for self-defence. [3] Because individuals provided their own equipment, there was considerable diversity in arms and armor among the Hellenistic troops. [4]

Contents

The poorest citizens, unable to afford the purchase or upkeep of military equipment, operated on the battlefield as psiloi or peltasts; fast, mobile skirmishing troops.

Weapons that used copper were becoming obsolete at the time. This is because copper was very weak compared to iron and bronze weapons. Iron was plentiful back then and allowed smaller nations in Greece to arm themselves with weapons that were lighter and stronger than copper. Bronze was still used but rare because of how hard it was to find tin, and therefore the weapons of ancient Greece were made of iron and copper. This would help them in the Greco-Persian Wars.[ citation needed ]

Personal weapons

Spears

Paintings of Ancient Macedonian soldiers, arms, and armaments, from the tomb of Agios Athanasios, Thessaloniki in Greece, 4th century BC Ancient Macedonian soldiers, from the tomb of Agios Athanasios, Greece.jpg
Paintings of Ancient Macedonian soldiers, arms, and armaments, from the tomb of Agios Athanasios, Thessaloniki in Greece, 4th century BC

The primary weapon that was used by Greek troops was a two-to-three meter spear with a leaf-shaped blade at one end and a short spike at the other known as the doru . The spearhead was usually made of bronze or iron but which one was more prominently used is still an open question. The short spike was known as the sauroter, or 'lizard killer', and is presumed to have served mainly to finish off wounded opponents on the ground, as the phalanx advanced, or as a spearhead if the main spear was broken. The doru was used one-handed (the other hand supporting the soldier's shield). [5] Mounted cavalry were known to have used a thinner spear or very long lance ( xyston ) which provided a range advantage over shorter infantry spears. [6]

Under Philip II of Macedon, hoplites were equipped with extremely long spears (up to 21 feet) called sarrisae . Used in conjunction with the phalanx formation, this made an impregnable wall of spears in front of the infantry; the enemy's shorter weaponry could not reach the phalanx because of the sarissa . [7]

Sword

As a secondary weapon, hoplites are known to have carried a short sword known as the xiphos which was made from iron or bronze depending on the era. This was used in the event of a broken spear, or if close melee combat was necessary. [8] Hoplites mounted on horseback likely used a heavier, curved sword known as the kopis, meaning "chopper" in the Greek language. [2] [9] Light infantry known as peltasts would carry a number of javelins used to pepper enemy formations, avoiding close combat whenever possible. The job of the peltast was not to engage in formation combat, therefore, many carried nothing more than javelins.

Ranged weapons

Hand-to-hand, light support troops such as the psiloi were often armed with ranged weapons. Popular ranged weapons were the bow ( toxatai ), javelin ( akontia ) and sling ( sfendonai ). While the bow was a relatively uncommon weapon (the wooden stave bow used had a limited range), some troops treated their arrows by thrusting them into rotting corpses, thus creating a crude form of biological weapon. [10] Peltast troops commonly used javelins, and hoplites and cavalry troops were also often equipped with javelins for throwing. The javelins used were light spears around 1.5 meters in length, with a bronze head to facilitate recovery of the weapon; they were usually thrown with the aid of an amentum .[ citation needed ] Slings used both lead pellets and stones; stones were also commonly thrown by hand. [11]

Armor

Ancient Macedonian paintings of Hellenistic-era military armor, arms, and gear from the Tomb of Lyson and Kallikles in ancient Mieza (modern-day Lefkadia), Imathia, Central Macedonia, Greece, dated 2nd century BC. Ancient Mieza, Macedonian tombs of Lefkadia, Tomb of Lyson and Kallikles a72b9b998c2e98a1390dbae9e032ea1c.jpg
Ancient Macedonian paintings of Hellenistic-era military armor, arms, and gear from the Tomb of Lyson and Kallikles in ancient Mieza (modern-day Lefkadia), Imathia, Central Macedonia, Greece, dated 2nd century BC.

Linothorax armor made out of linen fabric was the most common form of infantry torso armor, being cheap and relatively light. Bronze breastplate armor was also used, in forms such as a bell cuirass. Little other armor was worn, and fatal blows to unprotected areas (such as the bladder or neck) are recorded in ancient art and poetry. [12] Cavalry armor was designed to be lightweight; over a sleeveless tunic called a chitoniskos the cavalry soldier would wear a muscle cuirass designed to leave the arms as free as possible. [9] Hoplites wore greaves to protect the lower leg, as did cavalry, but otherwise the torso and head were the only body parts protected by armor.

Shields

The most vital part of the panoply was the aspis, a large, round shield commonly made from a layer of bronze, wood, and leather. The aspis was around a meter in diameter, and weighed around 7.3 kg (16 lbs), making it uncomfortable to hold for long periods. [12] Peltasts were armed with wicker shields called pelte, which were much lighter, allowing for greater movement on the battlefield. These were designed to defend against in-coming javelins from opposing peltasts, not necessarily to fend off the thrust of a spear or sword. [13]

Helmets

Helmets for the infantry came in various types. The earliest standard hoplite helmet was the Corinthian helmet, developed around 600BC. [12] Later, this was replaced by the Phrygian helmet and Chalcidian helmet, which were lighter and did not impair the wearer's vision or hearing so severely. Helmets often had a horsehair crest, for decorative purposes and as an additional level of protection. The Boeotian helmet was commonly used by cavalry troops due to their need for unimpeded vision and hearing. Helmets were mainly used for protecting the head but leaving the eyes, mouth and nose unprotected. [14]

See also

Related Research Articles

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Hoplite</span> Ancient Greek soldier in a phalanx

Hoplites were citizen-soldiers of Ancient Greek city-states who were primarily armed with spears and shields. Hoplite soldiers used the phalanx formation to be effective in war with fewer soldiers. The formation discouraged the soldiers from acting alone, for this would compromise the formation and minimize its strengths. The hoplites were primarily represented by free citizens – propertied farmers and artisans – who were able to afford a linen armour or a bronze armour suit and weapons. Most hoplites were not professional soldiers and often lacked sufficient military training. Some states maintained a small elite professional unit, known as the epilektoi or logades since they were picked from the regular citizen infantry. These existed at times in Athens, Sparta, Argos, Thebes, and Syracuse, among other places. Hoplite soldiers made up the bulk of ancient Greek armies.

A spear is a pole weapon consisting of a shaft, usually of wood, with a pointed head. The head may be simply the sharpened end of the shaft itself, as is the case with fire hardened spears, or it may be made of a more durable material fastened to the shaft, such as bone, flint, obsidian, copper, bronze, iron, or steel. The most common design for hunting and/or warfare, since ancient times has incorporated a metal spearhead shaped like a triangle, diamond, or leaf. The heads of fishing spears usually feature multiple sharp points, with or without barbs.

Maniple was a tactical unit of the Roman Republican armies, adopted during the Samnite Wars. It was also the name of the military insignia carried by such units.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Peltast</span> Type of ancient Greek light infantry

A peltast was a type of light infantry originating in Thrace and Paeonia and named after the kind of shield he carried. Thucydides mentions the Thracian peltasts, while Xenophon in the Anabasis distinguishes the Thracian and Greek peltast troops.

Ancient warfare is war that was conducted from the beginning of recorded history to the end of the ancient period. The difference between prehistoric and ancient warfare is more organization oriented than technology oriented. The development of first city-states, and then empires, allowed warfare to change dramatically. Beginning in Mesopotamia, states produced sufficient agricultural surplus. This allowed full-time ruling elites and military commanders to emerge. While the bulk of military forces were still farmers, the society could portion off each year. Thus, organized armies developed for the first time. These new armies were able to help states grow in size and become increasingly centralized.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Sarissa</span> Long spear or pike introduced by Philip II of Macedon

The sarisa or sarissa was a long spear or pike about 4 to 7 m in length. It was introduced by Philip II of Macedon and was used in his Macedonian phalanxes as a replacement for the earlier dory, which was considerably shorter. These longer spears improved the strength of the phalanx by extending the rows of overlapping weapons projecting towards the enemy, and the word remained in use throughout the Byzantine years to sometimes describe the long spears of their own infantry.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Hypaspists</span> Ancient Macedonian military unit also known as a shield-bearer

A hypaspist is a squire, man at arms, or "shield carrier". In Homer, Deiphobos advances "ὑπασπίδια" or under cover of his shield. By the time of Herodotus (426 BC), the word had come to mean a high status soldier as is strongly suggested by Herodotus in one of the earliest known uses:

Now the horse which Artybius rode was trained to fight with infantrymen by rearing up. Hearing this, Onesilus said to his hypaspist, a Carian of great renown in war and a valiant man ...

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Phalanx</span> Infantry formation

The phalanx was a rectangular mass military formation, usually composed entirely of heavy infantry armed with spears, pikes, sarissas, or similar pole weapons. The term is particularly used to describe the use of this formation in ancient Greek warfare, although the ancient Greek writers used it to also describe any massed infantry formation, regardless of its equipment. Arrian uses the term in his Array against the Alans when he refers to his legions. In Greek texts, the phalanx may be deployed for battle, on the march, or even camped, thus describing the mass of infantry or cavalry that would deploy in line during battle. They marched forward as one entity.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Ancient Macedonian army</span> Army of the ancient Greek kingdom of Macedonia

The army of the Kingdom of Macedon was among the greatest military forces of the ancient world. It was created and made formidable by King Philip II of Macedon; previously the army of Macedon had been of little account in the politics of the Greek world, and Macedonia had been regarded as a second-rate power.

The ekdromoi were an ancient Greek light hoplites. The name means 'out-runners', and denotes their ability to exit the phalanx and fight in an irregular order, as the situation might demand. The ekdromoi were mostly lightly armoured fast infantry and were armed with spear and short sword. The term would actually describe any hoplite who practiced the tactic of ekdrome, that is the irregular exit from the battle line.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Thyreophoroi</span>

The thyreophoroi or thureophoroi were a type of infantry soldier, common in the 3rd to 1st centuries BC, who carried a large oval shield called a thyreos which had a type of metal strip boss and a central spine. They were armed with a long thrusting spear, javelins and a sword. They also usually wore an iron or bronze Macedonian helmet.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Ancient Greek warfare</span> Overview of wars in Ancient Greece

Warfare occurred throughout the history of Ancient Greece, from the Greek Dark Ages onward. The Greek 'Dark Ages' drew to an end as a significant increase in population allowed urbanized culture to be restored, which led to the rise of the city-states (Poleis). These developments ushered in the period of Archaic Greece. They also restored the capability of organized warfare between these Poleis. The fractious nature of Ancient Greek society seems to have made continuous conflict on this larger scale inevitable.

<i>Thorakitai</i>

The thorakitai were a type of soldier in Hellenistic armies similar to the thureophoroi. The literal translation of the term is "cuirassiers", which suggests that they may have worn a short Celtic mail shirt or possibly a linothorax.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Javelin</span> Type of light spear designed to be thrown by hand

A javelin is a light spear designed primarily to be thrown, historically as a ranged weapon. Today, the javelin is predominantly used for sporting purposes such as the Javelin throw. The javelin is nearly always thrown by hand, unlike the sling, bow, and crossbow, which launch projectiles with the aid of a hand-held mechanism. However, devices do exist to assist the javelin thrower in achieving greater distances, such as spear-throwers or the amentum.

The dory or doru is a spear that was the chief spear of hoplites in Ancient Greece. The word "dory" was first attested by Homer with the meanings of "wood" and "spear". Homeric heroes hold two dorata. In the Homeric epics and in the classical period the dory was a symbol of military power, possibly more important than the sword, as can be inferred from expressions like "Troy conquered by dory" and words like "doryktetos" (spear-won) and "doryalotos" (spear-taken).

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Heavy infantry</span> Heavily armed and armoured soldiers

Heavy infantry consisted of heavily armed and armoured infantrymen who were trained to mount frontal assaults and/or anchor the defensive center of a battle line. This differentiated them from light infantry who are relatively mobile and lightly armoured skirmisher troops intended for screening, scouting, and other tactical roles unsuited to soldiers carrying heavier loads. Heavy infantry typically made use of dense battlefield formations, such as shield wall or phalanx, multiplying their effective weight of arms with force concentration.

The Hellenistic armies is the term applied to the armies of the successor kingdoms of the Hellenistic period. The Hellenistic armies emerged after the death of Alexander the Great in 323 BCE, when his empire was split between his successors, also known as the Diadochi. During the Wars of the Diadochi, the Macedonian army under Philip II and Alexander gradually adopted new units and tactics, further developing Macedonian warfare and improving on the tactics used in the Classical era. The armies of the Diadochi bear few differences from those of Alexander, but during the era of the Epigonoi, the differences were obvious, favoring numbers over quality and weight over maneuverability. The limited availability of Greek conscripts in the east led to an increasing dependence on mercenary forces, whereas in the west, Hellenistic armies were continuously involved in wars, which soon exhausted local manpower, paving the way for Roman supremacy. The major Hellenistic states were the Seleucid Empire, Ptolemaic Egypt and Macedonia during the Antigonid kingdom. Smaller states included Attalid Pergamum, Pontus, Epirus, the Achaean League, the Aetolian League, Syracuse, and other nations such as Athens, Sparta, etc.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Psiloi</span>

In Ancient Greek armies, the psiloi were the light infantry who usually acted as skirmishers and missile troops, and who were distinguished from the armored hoplitai by their light weapons and lack of armor.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Spartan army</span> Army of the ancient Greek city-state of Sparta

The Spartan army stood at the center of the Spartan state, citizens trained in the disciplines and honor of a warrior society. Subjected to military drills since early manhood, the Spartans became one of the most feared and formidable military forces in the Greek world, attaining legendary status in their wars against Persia. At the height of Sparta's power – between the 6th and 4th centuries BC – other Greeks commonly accepted that "one Spartan was worth several men of any other state."

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Macedonian phalanx</span> Ancient infantry formation

The Macedonian phalanx was an infantry formation developed by Philip II from the classical Greek phalanx, of which the main innovation was the use of the sarissa, a 6-metre pike. It was famously commanded by Philip's son Alexander the Great during his conquest of the Achaemenid Empire between 334 and 323 BC. The Macedonian phalanx model then spread throughout the Hellenistic world, where it became the standard battle formation for pitched battles. During the Macedonian Wars against the Roman Republic, the phalanx appeared obsolete against the more manoeuvrable Roman legions.

References

  1. ↑ Richard Holmes (1 April 2008). Weapon. Dorling Kindersley. p. 40. ISBN   978-1-4053-1619-4 . Retrieved 29 May 2012.
  2. 1 2 Stephen Batchelor (23 September 2008). The Ancient Greeks For Dummies. John Wiley & Sons. p. 59. ISBN   978-0-470-98787-2 . Retrieved 29 May 2012.
  3. ↑ Robert Sallares (1991). The Ecology of the Ancient Greek World . Cornell University Press. pp.  406. ISBN   978-0-8014-2615-5 . Retrieved 29 May 2012.
  4. ↑ William Kendrick Pritchett (8 January 1986). Studies in Ancient Greek Topography. University of California Press. p. 24. ISBN   978-0-520-09698-1 . Retrieved 7 June 2012.
  5. ↑ Richard A. Gabriel (2002). The Great Armies of Antiquity. Greenwood Publishing Group. p. 177. ISBN   978-0-275-97809-9 . Retrieved 30 May 2012.
  6. ↑ Iain Spence (2002). Historical Dictionary of Ancient Greek Warfare. Scarecrow Press. p. 89. ISBN   978-0-8108-4099-7 . Retrieved 30 May 2012.
  7. ↑ George Grote (1856). A history of Greece. John Murray. pp. 77–79. Retrieved 7 June 2012.
  8. ↑ DORLING KINDERSLEY; Dorling Kindersley Publishing Staff (1 April 2010). Swords. Dorling Kindersley Limited. p. 30. ISBN   978-1-4053-5136-2 . Retrieved 30 May 2012.
  9. 1 2 Nick Sekunda; Nicholas Sekunda (22 May 1986). The Ancient Greeks. Osprey Publishing. p. 18. ISBN   978-0-85045-686-8 . Retrieved 29 May 2012.[ permanent dead link ]
  10. ↑ Janell Broyles (1 November 2004). Chemical And Biological Weapons In A Post-9/11 World. The Rosen Publishing Group. p. 9. ISBN   978-1-4042-0288-7 . Retrieved 7 June 2012.
  11. ↑ William Kendrick Pritchett (5 June 1991). The Greek State at War. University of California Press. pp. 1–15. ISBN   978-0-520-07374-6 . Retrieved 7 June 2012.
  12. 1 2 3 David Sacks; Oswyn Murray (6 February 1997). A Dictionary of the Ancient Greek World. Oxford University Press. p. 117. ISBN   978-0-19-511206-1 . Retrieved 29 May 2012.
  13. ↑ J. E. Lendon (22 August 2006). Soldiers and Ghosts: A History of Battle in Classical Antiquity. Yale University Press. p. 96. ISBN   978-0-300-11979-4 . Retrieved 30 May 2012.
  14. ↑ Waldemar Heckel (25 July 2002). The Wars of Alexander the Great: 336-323 BC. Osprey Publishing. p. 25. ISBN   978-1-84176-473-3 . Retrieved 30 May 2012.[ permanent dead link ]
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