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Arcadian ecology is a school of thought that advocates for a harmonious relationship between humans and nature. It is named for the mountainous Arcady region of Greece. Gilbert White's seminal piece "Natural History of Selbourne" promotes a benign attitude towards nature and advocates for a peaceful coexistence between organisms. It was an individual realization of ancient arcadian ideas of harmonious interactions between humans and nature. The evolution of Arcadian ecological thought continuously reverts to the detailed letters and poems in this work. [1] [2]
The harmonious relationship described by Arcadian ecology establishes a responsibility to resist the domination of nature. Donald Worster in his book, Nature's Economy: A History of Ecological Ideas, uses Imperial ecology as a counterpoint to Arcadian ecology. Imperial ecology takes a different approach, and suggests that humans should attempt to manage nature, because nature exists for man's benefit (utilitarianism). This contradiction is representative of the ecologists' struggle to explain humanity's relationship with nature while considering popular theological views of the time period. The discussion of Arcadian versus Imperial ecology would continue with prominent figures of the field such as Henry David Thoreau and Charles Darwin. The long term implications of this debate have the potential to shape nature in the future as humans struggle with ethical debates and laws for preservation. [3]
The Arcadian standpoint has its roots in several historical and cultural traditions which have shaped the study of ecology. One of these such cultural traditions was the Renaissance, which cultivated the appreciation of landscape, wilderness, and nature. Environmental sociologist Kris van Koppen [4] underscores this point by arguing, "The social theories that belong to the arcadian approach are particularly orientated to the recognition, elaboration and extension of the intrinsic values of nature, as well as to the social organization of their preservation". [5]
Arcadian ecology can be understood by its contrasts with another prominent view, Imperial Ecology. Sociologists and historians define Imperial Ecology as the standpoint that nature is a force to be dominated in the quest for human convenience. It is in this difference that it can be clearly seen that the arcadian approach criticizes 'resourcism' and 'reductionism'. [5] Therefore, sociologists and ecologists who subscribe to the notion of arcadian ecology view natural disasters like the Dust Bowl as stemming directly from conceptions of nature like imperial ecology.
Within arcadian ecological thought, there has been a recent focus on the relationship between humans and animals. This comes primarily from Keith Tomas and his work Man and the Natural World: Changing Attitudes in England 1500–1800 published in 1983. This contribution began to highlight animal rights and the inhumane treatment of animals between 1500 and 1800. In a similar vein, Lynn White reflected on the shift from the biblical idea that animals were put on earth to serve man, to the realization that man must live in harmony with beast. [6]
Ethical and political implications of the Arcadian Ecology viewpoint are ever popular in scholarly and media debates during the twenty-first century. The debate however, did not begin during the current time but rather has progressed over many centuries as humans attempt to grapple with their short-term and long-term environmental impact. Max Oelschlaeger remarks, "Nearly 50 years ago Aldo Leopold identified the basic problem of conservation: learn how to live on the land without spoiling it". [7] It would also not even be fifteen years later when Rachel Carson wrote about Neanderthal science and its unreflective practitioners. [8]
A more reflective look at the United States' environmental practices can show in depth the struggle of a relatively new country, with substantial economic means, to come to an agreement on appropriate actions regarding nature. Historically the United States has had significant expansion and over-resourcing. The many national parks and government-protected environmental lands were in part created because there was over-farming and development. Teddy Roosevelt used his position as the United States President to set aside more than 194 million acres of park land. [9] Karl Jacoby, an expert in environmental history, has written how the Adirondack Park in New York was created to ensure a continued water source to the New York City population and a natural environment to “recharge” from city life. [10]
Not all United States National Parks were created for reasons other than nature preservation, such as Yosemite National Park. Originally it was set aside as land to be undeveloped by those who predicted that land conservation may become important in the future. For classification purposes, those ecologists that saw a need to refuse a developmental and destructive path for Yellowstone ascribe to the arcadian ecology view. However, this originally Arcadian movement was opposed, when San Francisco need a viable water supply after a devastating earthquake. This conservation issue sparked a major debate over the Hetch Hetchy. The debate pitted major thinkers against each other including John Muir who thought there was "no holier temple than Yosemite" and Gifford Pinchot who was in favor of damming to provide water resources to San Francisco. [11] The Hetch Hetchy examines the dichotomy of arcadian and imperial ecology.[ citation needed ]
In addition to National Parks, the United States has put many laws into motion regarding environmental protection including the National Environmental Policy Act (1969), the Wilderness Act (1964), and the Endangered Species Act (1973). These laws all celebrate the Arcadian harmony between nature and humans and ensure its preservation. Unfortunately, Americans, according to Max Oelschlaeger, are also, "the world’s leading consumers: our ecological footprints tread heavily on other parts of the planet". [12]
One of the major problems in determining if there has been success in terms of the environment in the United States is the subjectivity that comes with this environmental issue. A look at the work by Eliot Brownlee, a professor of economic history, will suggest that the United States is an economic success story that utilized the natural resources to the best of their abilities. The view looks at nature not as a pawn, but a means to an end in production which has advanced the human race further than ever thought possible. [13] In opposition, a prominent environmental philosopher, Joseph Petulla, wrote a different story of the landscape of Brownlee. He saw the economic success coming at a costly price of the destruction of the American land. Western civilization had encroached too far into nature and it was more reminiscent of Imperial Ecology rather than Arcadian Ecology. [14]
The organized environmental movement is represented by a wide range of non-governmental organizations or NGOs that seek to address environmental issues in the United States. They operate on local, national, and international scales. Environmental NGOs vary widely in political views and in the ways they seek to influence the environmental policy of the United States and other governments.
Human ecology is an interdisciplinary and transdisciplinary study of the relationship between humans and their natural, social, and built environments. The philosophy and study of human ecology has a diffuse history with advancements in ecology, geography, sociology, psychology, anthropology, zoology, epidemiology, public health, and home economics, among others.
In environmental philosophy, environmental ethics is an established field of practical philosophy "which reconstructs the essential types of argumentation that can be made for protecting natural entities and the sustainable use of natural resources." The main competing paradigms are anthropocentrism, physiocentrism, and theocentrism. Environmental ethics exerts influence on a large range of disciplines including environmental law, environmental sociology, ecotheology, ecological economics, ecology and environmental geography.
Ecological economics, bioeconomics, ecolonomy, eco-economics, or ecol-econ is both a transdisciplinary and an interdisciplinary field of academic research addressing the interdependence and coevolution of human economies and natural ecosystems, both intertemporally and spatially. By treating the economy as a subsystem of Earth's larger ecosystem, and by emphasizing the preservation of natural capital, the field of ecological economics is differentiated from environmental economics, which is the mainstream economic analysis of the environment. One survey of German economists found that ecological and environmental economics are different schools of economic thought, with ecological economists emphasizing strong sustainability and rejecting the proposition that physical (human-made) capital can substitute for natural capital.
A land ethic is a philosophy or theoretical framework about how, ethically, humans should regard the land. The term was coined by Aldo Leopold (1887–1948) in his A Sand County Almanac (1949), a classic text of the environmental movement. There he argues that there is a critical need for a "new ethic", an "ethic dealing with human's relation to land and to the animals and plants which grow upon it".
Spiritual ecology is an emerging field in religion, conservation, and academia recognizing that there is a spiritual facet to all issues related to conservation, environmentalism, and earth stewardship. Proponents of Spiritual Ecology assert a need for contemporary conservation work to include spiritual elements and for contemporary religion and spirituality to include awareness of and engagement in ecological issues.
J. Baird Callicott is an American philosopher whose work has been at the forefront of the new field of environmental philosophy and ethics. He is a University Distinguished Research Professor and a member of the Department of Philosophy and Religion Studies and the Institute of Applied Sciences at the University of North Texas. Callicott held the position of Professor of Philosophy and Natural Resources at the University of Wisconsin–Stevens Point from 1969 to 1995, where he taught the world's first course in environmental ethics in 1971. From 1994 to 2000, he served as vice president then president of the International Society for Environmental Ethics. Other distinguished positions include visiting professor of philosophy at Yale University; the University of California, Santa Barbara; the University of Hawai’i; and the University of Florida.
Ecology is a new science and considered as an important branch of biological science, having only become prominent during the second half of the 20th century. Ecological thought is derivative of established currents in philosophy, particularly from ethics and politics.
Ecocentrism is a term used by environmental philosophers and ecologists to denote a nature-centered, as opposed to human-centered, system of values. The justification for ecocentrism usually consists in an ontological belief and subsequent ethical claim. The ontological belief denies that there are any existential divisions between human and non-human nature sufficient to claim that humans are either (a) the sole bearers of intrinsic value or (b) possess greater intrinsic value than non-human nature. Thus the subsequent ethical claim is for an equality of intrinsic value across human and non-human nature, or biospherical egalitarianism.
The environmental humanities is an interdisciplinary area of research, drawing on the many environmental sub-disciplines that have emerged in the humanities over the past several decades, in particular environmental literature, environmental philosophy, environmental history, science and technology studies, environmental anthropology, and environmental communication. Environmental humanities employs humanistic questions about meaning, culture, values, ethics, and responsibilities to address pressing environmental problems. The environmental humanities aim to help bridge traditional divides between the sciences and the humanities, as well as between Western, Eastern, and Indigenous ways of relating to the natural world and the place of humans within it. The field also resists the traditional divide between "nature" and "culture," showing how many "environmental" issues have always been entangled in human questions of justice, labor, and politics. Environmental humanities is also a way of synthesizing methods from different fields to create new ways of thinking through environmental problems.
Environmental philosophy is a branch of philosophy that is concerned with the natural environment and humans' place within it. It asks crucial questions about human environmental relations such as "What do we mean when we talk about nature?" "What is the value of the natural, that is non-human environment to us, or in itself?" "How should we respond to environmental challenges such as environmental degradation, pollution and climate change?" "How can we best understand the relationship between the natural world and human technology and development?" and "What is our place in the natural world?" Environmental philosophy includes environmental ethics, environmental aesthetics, ecofeminism, environmental hermeneutics, and environmental theology. Some of the main areas of interest for environmental philosophers are:
A Sand County Almanac: And Sketches Here and There is a 1949 non-fiction book by American ecologist, forester, and environmentalist Aldo Leopold. Describing the land around the author's home in Sauk County, Wisconsin, the collection of essays advocate Leopold's idea of a "land ethic", or a responsible relationship existing between people and the land they inhabit. Edited and published by his son, Luna, a year after Leopold's death, the book is considered a landmark in the American conservation movement.
John Passmore AC was an Australian philosopher.
David Abram is an American ecologist and philosopher best known for his work bridging the philosophical tradition of phenomenology with environmental and ecological issues. He is the author of Becoming Animal: An Earthly Cosmology (2010) and The Spell of the Sensuous: Perception and Language in a More-than-Human World (1996), for which he received the Lannan Literary Award for Nonfiction. Abram is founder and creative director of the Alliance for Wild Ethics (AWE); his essays on the cultural causes and consequences of ecological disarray have appeared often in such journals as the online magazine Emergence, Orion, Environmental Ethics, Parabola, Tikkun and The Ecologist, as well as in numerous academic anthologies.
Deep ecology is an environmental philosophy that promotes the inherent worth of all living beings regardless of their instrumental utility to human needs, and the restructuring of modern human societies in accordance with such ideas.
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The following outline is provided as an overview of and topical guide to environmentalism, broad philosophy, ideology and social movement regarding concerns for environmental conservation and improvement of the health of the environment, particularly as the measure for this health seeks to incorporate the concerns of non-human elements. Environmentalism advocates the preservation, restoration and/or improvement of the natural environment, and may be referred to as a movement to control pollution.
Max Oelschlaeger is an American ecological philosopher, active in the study of Environmental Ethics, Environmental Philosophy, Ecofeminism, Deep Ecology, Philosophy of Ecology, Contemporary Environmental Issues, Postmodern Environmental Ethics, and the Philosophy of Wilderness.
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