The Papanicolaou test is a method of cervical screening used to detect potentially precancerous and cancerous processes in the cervix or, more rarely, anus. Abnormal findings are often followed up by more sensitive diagnostic procedures and, if warranted, interventions that aim to prevent progression to cervical cancer. The test was independently invented in the 1920s by the Greek physician Georgios Papanikolaou and named after him. A simplified version of the test was introduced by the Canadian obstetrician Anna Marion Hilliard in 1957.
Cervical cancer is a cancer arising from the cervix or in any layer of the wall of the cervix. It is due to the abnormal growth of cells that have the ability to invade or spread to other parts of the body. Early on, typically no symptoms are seen. Later symptoms may include abnormal vaginal bleeding, pelvic pain or pain during sexual intercourse. While bleeding after sex may not be serious, it may also indicate the presence of cervical cancer.
Human papillomavirus infection is caused by a DNA virus from the Papillomaviridae family. Many HPV infections cause no symptoms and 90% resolve spontaneously within two years. In some cases, an HPV infection persists and results in either warts or precancerous lesions. These lesions, depending on the site affected, increase the risk of cancer of the cervix, vulva, vagina, penis, anus, mouth, tonsils, or throat. Nearly all cervical cancer is due to HPV, and two strains – HPV16 and HPV18 – account for 70% of all cases. HPV16 is responsible for almost 90% of HPV-positive oropharyngeal cancers. Between 60% and 90% of the other cancers listed above are also linked to HPV. HPV6 and HPV11 are common causes of genital warts and laryngeal papillomatosis.
Anal cancer is a cancer which arises from the anus, the distal opening of the gastrointestinal tract. Symptoms may include bleeding from the anus or a lump near the anus. Other symptoms may include pain, itchiness, or discharge from the anus. A change in bowel movements may also occur.
Cervical intraepithelial neoplasia (CIN), also known as cervical dysplasia, is the abnormal growth of cells on the surface of the cervix that could potentially lead to cervical cancer. More specifically, CIN refers to the potentially precancerous transformation of cells of the cervix.
Human papillomavirus (HPV) vaccines are vaccines intended to provide acquired immunity against infection by certain types of human papillomavirus (HPV). The first HPV vaccine became available in 2006. Currently there are six licensed HPV vaccines: three bivalent, two quadrivalent, and one nonavalent vaccine All have excellent safety profiles and are highly efficacious, or have met immunobridging standards. All of them protect against HPV types 16 and 18, which are together responsible for approximately 70% of cervical cancer cases globally. The quadrivalent vaccines provide additional protection against HPV types 6 and 11. The nonavalent provides additional protection against HPV types 31, 33, 45, 52 and 58. It is estimated that HPV vaccines may prevent 70% of cervical cancer, 80% of anal cancer, 60% of vaginal cancer, 40% of vulvar cancer, and show more than 90% effectiveness in preventing HPV-positive oropharyngeal cancers. They also protect against penile cancer. They additionally prevent genital warts, with the quadrivalent and nonavalent vaccines providing virtually complete protection. The WHO recommends a one or two-dose schedule for girls aged 9–14 years, the same for girls and women aged 15–20 years, and two doses with a 6-month interval for women older than 21 years. The vaccines provide protection for at least five to ten years.
Ian Hector Frazer is a Scottish-born Australian immunologist, the founding CEO and Director of Research of the Translational Research Institute (Australia). Frazer and Jian Zhou developed and patented the basic technology behind the HPV vaccine against cervical cancer at the University of Queensland. Researchers at the National Cancer Institute, Georgetown University, and University of Rochester also contributed to the further development of the cervical cancer vaccine in parallel.
Cervarix is a vaccine against certain types of cancer-causing human papillomavirus (HPV).
The Armenian American Wellness Center, in Armenia, is a humanitarian project of the Armenian American Cultural Association (AACA), a 501(c)(3) non-profit organization incorporated in Arlington, Virginia in February 1995. The project aims to promote the early and accurate detection of breast and cervical cancer, and to provide relatively low-cost primary health care services to women in Armenia.
Colin Robert Andrew Laverty was an Australian medical practitioner and was the first to confirm that the human papillomavirus was much more common in the cervix than previously thought and, in 1978, he suggested that this virus be considered as possibly involved in the causation of cervical cancer. He was also a prolific art collector.
An anal Pap smear is the anal counterpart of the cervical Pap smear. It is used for the early detection of anal cancer. Some types of human papillomavirus (HPV) can cause anal cancer. Other HPV types cause anogenital warts. Cigarette smokers, men who have sex with men, individuals with a history of immunosuppression and women with a history of cervical, vaginal and vulval cancer are at increased risk of getting anal cancer. Vaccination against HPV before initial sexual exposure can reduce the risk of anal cancer.
Cervical cancer screening is a medical screening test designed to identify risk of cervical cancer. Cervical screening may involve looking for viral DNA, and/or to identify abnormal, potentially precancerous cells within the cervix as well as cells that have progressed to early stages of cervical cancer. One goal of cervical screening is to allow for intervention and treatment so abnormal lesions can be removed prior to progression to cancer. An additional goal is to decrease mortality from cervical cancer by identifying cancerous lesions in their early stages and providing treatment prior to progression to more invasive disease.
Jian Zhou was a Chinese virologist and cancer researcher, who with fellow researcher Ian Frazer, invented Gardasil and Cervarix, the vaccines for stimulating human immunological resistance to the cervical cancer-inducing human papilloma virus.
Diane Medved Harper is an American professor in the Department of Family Medicine at the University of Michigan. Her area of expertise is human papillomavirus (HPV) and the diseases associated with it, as well as colposcopy. She was one of the investigators for the clinical trials of two vaccines against HPV, Gardasil and Cervarix.
A/Prof Eugen Molodysky OAM, MMBS is an academic and medical practitioner in preventive medicine and translational research. His research has been published in peer reviewed journals over the last 30 years. His clinical work has contributed to the early identification of HIV/AIDS in the 1980s epidemic in Australia.
Gynecologic cancer disparities in the United States refer to differences in incidence, prevalence, and mortality from gynecologic cancers between population groups. The five main types of gynecologic cancer include cervical cancer, ovarian cancer, endometrial cancer, vaginal cancer, and vulvar cancer. For patients with these and other gynecologic malignancies within the United States, disparities across the care continuum by socioeconomic status and racial/ethnic background have been previously identified and studied. The causes behind these disparities are multifaceted and a complex interplay of systemic differences in health as well as individual patient factors such as cultural, educational, and economic barriers.
Redkite is a non-government charity organisation based in Sydney, Australia. It supports young cancer patients up to the ages of 18 and their families with financial assistance, emotional and mental health support including counselling for diagnosed children and their siblings, practical support and information, as well as funding social workers and music therapists in paediatric oncology wards. The organisation operates in all Australian states and has raised $11.88 million through fundraising activities in the 2017 financial year with net surplus totalling $39,000. It currently has 68 employees, 501-1000 active volunteers and 9 board members.
Gina Suzanne Ogilvie is a Canadian global and public health physician. She is a Tier 1 Canada Research Chair in Global Control of HPV related diseases and prevention, and Professor at the University of British Columbia in their School of Population and Public Health.
Michele Lenore Frazier Baldwin, also known as Lady Ganga, was an American who set a world record in standup paddleboarding by paddling 700 miles (1,100 km) down the Ganges in India after being diagnosed with terminal cervical cancer in 2011. Her goal was to raise money and awareness for cervical cancer, human papillomavirus infection, and the HPV vaccine.
Karen Canfell is an Australian epidemiologist and cancer researcher.
