Aviation communication

Last updated
The earliest communication with aircraft was by visual signalling Voisin-Farman I.jpg
The earliest communication with aircraft was by visual signalling

Aviation communication refers to the conversing of two or more aircraft. Aircraft are constructed in such a way that make it very difficult to see beyond what is directly in front of them. As safety is a primary focus in aviation, communication methods such as wireless radio are an effective way for aircraft to communicate with the necessary personnel. Aviation is an international industry and as a result involves multiple languages. The International Civil Aviation Organization (ICAO) deemed English the official language of aviation. The industry considers that some pilots may not be fluent English speakers and as a result pilots are obligated to participate in an English proficiency test.

Contents

Background

Aviation communication is the means by which aircraft crews connect with other aircraft and people on the ground to relay information. Aviation communication is a crucial component pertaining to the successful functionality of aircraft movement both on the ground and in the air. Increased communication reduces the risk of an accident. [1]

During the early stages of aviation, it was assumed that skies were too big and empty that it was impossible that two planes would collide. In 1956 two planes famously crashed over the Grand Canyon, which sparked the creation of the Federal Aviation Administration (FAA). Aviation was roaring during the Jet Age and as a result, communication technologies needed to be developed. This was initially seen as a very difficult task: ground controls used visual aids to provide signals to pilots in the air. With the advent of portable radios small enough to be placed in planes, pilots were able to communicate with people on the ground. With later developments, pilots were then able to converse air-to-ground and air-to-air. Today, aviation communication relies heavily on the use of many systems. Planes are outfitted with the newest radio and GPS systems, as well as Internet and video capabilities.

English is the main language used by the aviation industry; the use of aviation English is regulated by the International Civil Aviation Organization (ICAO). [2]

Early systems

Flight was considered a foreign concept until the Wright Brothers successfully completed the world's first human flight in 1903. The industry grew rapidly and ground crews initially relied on coloured paddles, signal flares, hand signs, and other visual aids to communicate with incoming and outgoing aircraft. Although these methods were effective for ground crews, they offered no way for pilots to communicate back. As wireless telegraphy technologies developed alongside the growth of aviation during the first decade of the twentieth century, wireless telegraph systems were used to send messages in Morse code, first from ground-to-air and later air-to-ground. With this technology, planes were able to call in accurate artillery fire and act as forward observers in warfare. [3]

In 1911, wireless telegraphy was put into operational use in the Italo-Turkish War. In 1912, the Royal Flying Corps had begun experimenting with "wireless telegraphy" in aircraft. Lieutenant B.T James was a leading pioneer of wireless radio in aircraft. In the spring of 1913, James had begun to experiment with radios in a B.E.2A. James managed to successfully increase the efficiency of wireless radio before he was shot down and killed by anti-aircraft fire on July 13, 1915.

Nonetheless, wireless communication systems in aircraft remained experimental and would take years to successfully develop a practical prototype. The early radios were heavy in weight and were unreliable; additionally, ground forces rarely used radio because signals were easily intercepted and targeted by opposing forces. At the beginning of World War I, aircraft were not typically equipped with wireless equipment. Instead, soldiers used large panel cut outs to distinguish friendly forces. These cut outs could also be used as a directional device to help pilots navigate back to friendly and familiar airfields.

In April 1915, Captain J.M. Furnival was the first person to hear a voice from the ground from Major Prince who said, "If you can hear me now, it will be the first time speech has ever been communicated to an aeroplane in flight." In June 1915, the world's first air-to-ground voice transmission took place at Brooklands, United Kingdom, over about 20 miles. Ground-to-air was initially by Morse code, but it is believed 2-way voice communications were available and installed by July 1915. By early 1916, the Marconi Company in Britain started production of air-to-ground radio transmitters/receivers which were used in the war over France.

In 1917, AT&T invented the first American air-to-ground radio transmitter. [4] They tested this device at Langley Field in Virginia and found it was a viable technology. [5] In May 1917, General George Squier of the U.S. Army Signal Corps contacted AT&T to develop an air-to-ground radio with a range of 2,000 yards. By July 4 of that same year, AT&T technicians achieved two-way communication between pilots and ground personnel. [5] This allowed ground personnel to communicate directly with pilots using their voices instead of Morse code. Though few of these devices saw service in the war, they proved this was a viable and valuable technology worthy of refinement and advancement.

Interwar

Following World War I new technology was developed to increase the range and performance of the radios being used to communicate with planes in the air. In December 1919 a year after the end of World War I, Hugh Trenchard, 1st Viscount Trenchard, a senior officer in the Royal Flying Corps (RFC) later Royal Air Force (RAF), produced a report on the permanent organisation and operations of the RAF in peacetime in which he argued that if the air force officer was not to be a chauffeur, and nothing more, then navigation, meteorology, photography and wireless were necessities. [6]

It was not until 1930 that airborne radios were reliable enough and had enough power to make them effective; and it was this year that the International Commission for Aerial Navigation agreed that all aircraft carrying 10 or more passengers should carry wireless equipment. [7] Prior to this, only military aircraft designated for scout missions required radios. The operating distance of radios increased much slower than the distance planes were able to travel. After an original two mile range for the two-way radio systems tested by 1917 had extended to ranges of an average of 20 miles, which remained a practical limit for medium sized aircraft. [8] [9] In terms of air traffic control, this resulted in a plane's messages having to bounce from airfield to airfield in order to get to its intended recipient. As the speed of planes increased, this resulted in a plane reaching its destination before the message announcing its departure[ citation needed ].

On 15 November 1938, the Army Airways Communications System (AACS) was established. This was a point-to-point communications system used by the US Army Air Corps, that allowed army air fields to remain in contact with planes throughout their entire flight. It could also be used to disseminate weather reports and orders to military aircraft and act as an air traffic control for arrivals and departures at military airfields. [10] As technology increased, systems such as the AACS expanded and spread across the globe as other militaries and civilian services developed their own systems of air control.

The R1155/T1154 combination used by the RAF in WWII R1155 Receiver and T1154 Transmitter at RAF Digby.jpg
The R1155/T1154 combination used by the RAF in WWII

World War II

The development of radar in the mid-1930s proved a great advance in air-to-ground communication. Radar could be used to track planes in the air and determine distance, direction, speed and even type of aircraft. This allowed for better air traffic control as well as navigation aides for pilots. Radar also proved to be a valuable tool in targeting for bombers. Radar stations on the coast of Britain could aim two radar beams from separate locations on the coast towards Germany. By aligning the two radar beams to intersect over the desired target, a town or factory for example, an aircraft could then follow one radar signal until it intersected with the other where it would then know to drop bombs.

The Royal Air Force used the R1155/T1154 receiver/transmitter combination in most of its larger aircraft, particularly the Avro Lancaster and Short Sunderland. Single seat aircraft such as the Spitfire and Hurricane were equipped mostly with the TR1143 set. Other systems employed were Eureka and the S-Phone, which enabled Special Operations Executive agents working behind enemy lines to communicate with friendly aircraft and coordinate landings and the dropping of agents and supplies. [11]

Error

Communication error can occur between pilots and between pilots and air traffic controllers due to inadequate information, unclear pronunciation or comprehensive misunderstanding. [1]

The more information needing transfer, the more chance for error. [1] Unclear pronunciation could happen with non-English speakers. Sometimes lack of self-confidence and motivation affects expression in communication. [12] Misunderstanding happens with both native speakers and non-native speakers through communication, so a standard aviation language is important to improve this situation.

Sources of communication error come from: phonology (speech rate, stress, intonation, pauses), syntax (language word patterns, sentence structure), semantics, and pragmatics (language in context). Even though English is the international aviation language, native English speakers still play a role in misunderstanding and situational awareness. Both the ICAO and the Federal Aviation Administration use alternative phrases, which is confusing to both native and non-native English speakers. [13]

The biggest problem regarding non-native English speakers' transmissions is speech rate. In order to understand alternative and unfamiliar accents, people's rate of comprehension and response slows down. Accents also affect transmissions because of the different pronunciations across languages. [14] Some of the earlier miscommunication issues included the limitation of language-based warning systems in aircraft and insufficient English proficiency. [15]

According to US department of transportation's report, errors between pilots and controllers include: [16]

Generally, miscommunication is caused by mis-hearing by the pilots for 28%, pilot not responding for 20%, controller mis-hearing for 15% and 10% that controllers do not respond. [17] Also, a professional research shows that 30% of the information will be lost during the miscommunication. [18] Moreover, miscommunication exists in personnel with different background of linguistics is shown to be one of the major problem in miscommunication to cause aviation accidents. [19] Avoiding or minimizing miscommunication could be achieved by standardized debriefing or an interview process, and following a checklist to supplement written data. [20]

English

The International Civil Aviation Organization established English as the international aviation language in 1951 to improve consistency, accuracy, and effectiveness of pilot - air traffic control communication. [21] It requires that all pilots on international flights and air traffic controllers serving international airports and routes must be able to communicate in English effectively, as well as in their native language. [21] The goal was to achieve standards that would eliminate communication error, language, and comprehension difficulties, all of which have been a major cause of operational airspace incidents. Miscommunication between pilots and air traffic control is a prominent factor in fatal airplane crashes, airspace incidents, runway incursion, and mid-air collisions. [14]

Aviation English is the highly specialized language and sequences used by pilots, air traffic control, and other aviation personnel and it focuses on a particular pronunciation, vocabulary, grammatical structure, and discourse styles that are used in specific aviation-related contexts. [15] The language used by pilots and air traffic controllers during radiotelephony communication can be categorized into two types: standard phraseology, and plain language repertoire. Standard phraseology is the specialized phrasing commonly used by the aviation community to effectively communicate, and plain language is a more normal language used in everyday life. [22]

Many non-native English speaking pilots and air traffic controllers learn English during their flight training and use it in a highly practical level while safely operating an aircraft and maintaining the safety of airspace, which can be highly stressful. [15]

Language proficiency requirements

ICAO also established the Language Proficiency Requirements to try to rectify multiple issues regarding accents, terminology, and interpretation in communication. [23] The intention of the LPRs is to "ensure that the language proficiency of pilots and air traffic controllers is sufficient to reduce miscommunication as much as possible and to allow pilots and controllers to recognize and solve potential miscommunication when it does occur" and "that all speakers have sufficient language proficiency to handle non-routine situations." [24] The structure of the LPR has six levels, pronunciation, structure, vocabulary, fluency, comprehension, and interactions. [25] The implemented universal aviation English proficiency scale ranged from Level 1 to Level 6. [26]

Beginning in March 2008, ICAO set out the requirement that all pilots flying international routes and air traffic control serving international airports and routes must be a Level 4 or above and will be continually reassessed every three years. [26] The criteria to achieve Level 4 are as follows: [27]

Non-English speakers

English is the aviation language used by ICAO. Usually, human factors that affect communications include two aspects: direct, meaning the error caused by the language itself, which is the problem for non English speakers, and also indirect, with the gender, age, and experience impacting the communication in aviation. [28]

As a result, both pilots and ATCs need to have enough English ability to accomplish their tasks. Through education to help improve aviation English, participants need not only focus on the textbook, but need experience in an actual environment such as lab experience to help speakers to improve their English fluency and avoid misunderstanding which helps non-English speakers to communicate normally. [13]

See also

Related Research Articles

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Air traffic control</span> Public service provided for the purpose of maintaining the safe and orderly flow of air traffic

Air traffic control (ATC) is a service provided by ground-based air traffic controllers who direct aircraft on the ground and through a given section of controlled airspace, and can provide advisory services to aircraft in non-controlled airspace. The primary purpose of ATC worldwide is to prevent collisions, organize and expedite the flow of air traffic, and provide information and other support for pilots.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Air traffic controller</span> Aviation specialist

Air traffic control specialists, abbreviated ATCs, are personnel responsible for the safe, orderly, and expeditious flow of air traffic in the global air traffic control system. Usually stationed in air traffic control centers and control towers on the ground, they monitor the position, speed, and altitude of aircraft in their assigned airspace visually and by radar, and give directions to the pilots by radio. The position of air traffic controller is one that requires highly specialized knowledge, skills, and abilities. Controllers apply separation rules to keep aircraft at a safe distance from each other and within proper airspace in their area of responsibility and move all aircraft safely and efficiently through their assigned sector of airspace, as well as on the ground. Because controllers have an incredibly large responsibility while on duty and make countless real-time decisions on a daily basis, the ATC profession is consistently regarded around the world as one of the most mentally challenging careers, and can be notoriously stressful depending on many variables. Many controllers, however, cite high salaries, and a large, unique, and privileged degree of autonomy as major advantages of their jobs.

Aviation is the design, development, production, operation, and use of aircraft, especially heavier-than-air aircraft. Articles related to aviation include:

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Shanwick Oceanic Control</span> Area of International Airspace which lies above the northeast part of the North Atlantic

Shanwick is the air traffic control (ATC) name given to the area of international airspace which lies above the northeast part of the Atlantic Ocean.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">1996 Charkhi Dadri mid-air collision</span> November 1996 mid-air plane collision in northern India

On 12 November 1996, Saudia Flight 763, a Boeing 747 en route from Delhi, India, to Dhahran, Saudi Arabia, and Kazakhstan Airlines Flight 1907, an Ilyushin Il-76 en route from Chimkent, Kazakhstan, to Delhi, collided over the village of Charkhi Dadri, around 100 km west of Delhi. The crash killed all 349 people on board both planes, making it the world's deadliest mid-air collision and the deadliest aviation accident to occur in India. The crash was caused by failure of the Kazakh crew to maintain the correct altitude, because of confused dialogue with the tower communicated via the radio operator.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Secondary surveillance radar</span> Radar system used in air traffic control

Secondary surveillance radar (SSR) is a radar system used in air traffic control (ATC), that unlike primary radar systems that measure the bearing and distance of targets using the detected reflections of radio signals, relies on targets equipped with a radar transponder, that reply to each interrogation signal by transmitting encoded data such as an identity code, the aircraft's altitude and further information depending on its chosen mode. SSR is based on the military identification friend or foe (IFF) technology originally developed during World War II, therefore the two systems are still compatible. Monopulse secondary surveillance radar (MSSR), Mode S, TCAS and ADS-B are similar modern methods of secondary surveillance.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Airborne collision avoidance system</span> Avionics system to avoid aircraft collision

An airborne collision avoidance system operates independently of ground-based equipment and air traffic control in warning pilots of the presence of other aircraft that may present a threat of collision. If the risk of collision is imminent, the system recommends a maneuver that will reduce the risk of collision. ACAS standards and recommended practices are mainly defined in annex 10, volume IV, of the Convention on International Civil Aviation. Much of the technology being applied to both military and general aviation today has been undergoing development by NASA and other partners since the 1980s.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Area control center</span> Air traffic control facility

In air traffic control, an area control center (ACC), also known as a center or en-route center, is a facility responsible for controlling aircraft flying in the airspace of a given flight information region (FIR) at high altitudes between airport approaches and departures. In the US, such a center is referred to as an air route traffic control center (ARTCC).

The Future Air Navigation System (FANS) is an avionics system which provides direct data link communication between the pilot and the air traffic controller. The communications include air traffic control clearances, pilot requests and position reporting. In the FANS-B equipped Airbus A320 family aircraft, an Air Traffic Services Unit (ATSU) and a VHF Data Link radio (VDR3) in the avionics rack and two data link control and display units (DCDUs) in the cockpit enable the flight crew to read and answer the controller–pilot data link communications (CPDLC) messages received from the ground.

Controller–pilot data link communications (CPDLC), also referred to as controller pilot data link (CPDL), is a method by which air traffic controllers can communicate with pilots over a datalink system.

In aviation a ground-controlled approach (GCA), is a type of service provided by air-traffic controllers whereby they guide aircraft to a safe landing, including in adverse weather conditions, based on primary radar images. Most commonly, a GCA uses information from either a precision approach radar or an airport surveillance radar. The term GCA may refer to any type of ground radar guided approach such as a PAR, PAR without glideslope or ASR. When both vertical and horizontal guidance from the PAR is given, the approach is termed a precision approach. If no PAR glidepath is given, even if PAR equipment is used for lateral guidance, it is considered a non-precision approach.

The National Airspace System (NAS) is the airspace, navigation facilities and airports of the United States along with their associated information, services, rules, regulations, policies, procedures, personnel and equipment. It includes components shared jointly with the military. It is one of the most complex aviation systems in the world, and services air travel in the United States and over large portions of the world's oceans.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Automatic Dependent Surveillance–Broadcast</span> Aircraft surveillance technology

Automatic Dependent Surveillance–Broadcast (ADS-B) is a surveillance technology and form of Electronic Conspicuity in which an aircraft determines its position via satellite navigation or other sensors and periodically broadcasts it, enabling it to be tracked. The information can be received by air traffic control ground stations as a replacement for secondary surveillance radar, as no interrogation signal is needed from the ground. It can also be transmitted and received point-to-point by other aircraft to provide situational awareness and allow self-separation. ADS-B is "automatic" in that it requires no pilot or external input. It is "dependent" in that it depends on data from the aircraft's navigation system.

2023 Comm), an element of the Next Generation Air Transportation System, will significantly reduce controller-to-pilot communications and controller workload, whilst improving safety. NextGen comprises complex integrated and interlinked programs, portfolios, systems, policies, and procedures. NextGen has modernized air traffic infrastructure in communications, navigation, surveillance, automation, and information management.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Flight information service officer</span>

Flight information service officers or FISO, provide a flight information service (FIS) to any air traffic that requests it, or requires it. A FISO is a licensed operator, who most usually works at an aerodrome, although there are some FISOs working in area control centers. FISOs must been validated for each aerodrome, or other air traffic control unit they work for. Air traffic controllers are also permitted to provide flight information services to pilots.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Air-to-ground communication</span>

Air-to-ground communication was first made possible by the development of two-way aerial telegraphy in 1912, soon followed by two-way radio. By the Second World War, radio had become the chief medium of air-to-ground and air-to-air communication. Since then, transponders have enabled pilots and controllers to identify planes automatically, greatly improving air security. Most recently, in addition to sophisticated radio and GPS systems, the unmanned aerial vehicle, or drone, has revolutionised aerial surveillance and combat.

The Academy of Technical Training is a privately owned institution which provides training programs in aviation security and safety, air traffic control, and management of aircraft accidents. The curriculum and courses are accredited and certified by the General Civil Aviation Authority.

Aviation English is the de facto international language of civil aviation. With the expansion of air travel in the 20th century, there were safety concerns about the ability of pilots and air traffic controllers to communicate. In 1951, the International Civil Aviation Organization (ICAO) recommended in "ICAO Annex 10 ICAO to the International Chicago Convention" that English be universally used for "international aeronautical radiotelephony communications." Despite being a recommendation only, ICAO aviation English was widely accepted.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Aviation call signs</span> Unique aircraft identifiers

Aviation call signs are communication call signs assigned as unique identifiers to aircraft.

The English Language Proficiency for Aeronautical Communication (ELPAC) is a EUROCONTROL test for aeronautical communication designed to assess ICAO English Language Proficiency for pilots and air traffic controllers, and reflects the range of tasks undertaken in air traffic control and pilot communications. The test focuses on language proficiency, not operational procedures.

References

  1. 1 2 3 Powell, Stephen M. (January 2006). "My copilot is a nurse—Using crew resource management in the OR". AORN Journal. 83 (1): 178–202. doi:10.1016/s0001-2092(06)60239-1. PMID   16528907.
  2. ↑ "Member States.English.pdf" (PDF). ICAO. Archived from the original (PDF) on 2012-06-12. Retrieved 2012-09-06.
  3. ↑ Britten, Cyril. "VOICES IN FLIGHT -- First World War in the Air". Anna Malinovska. Retrieved 2011-11-07.
  4. ↑ "AT&T Labs - Innovation - Technology Timeline - The First Air-to-ground & Ground-to-air Communication| AT&T Labs| AT&T". www.corp.att.com. Retrieved 2016-03-22.
  5. 1 2 "Technology Timeline - The First Air-to-ground & Ground-to-air Communication". AT&T Labs. Retrieved 2011-11-07.
  6. ↑ Flt Lt Alec Ayliffe (21 October 1996). A History of Navigation in the Royal Air Force (PDF). Hendon: RAF Museum. pp. 12–33. Retrieved 28 October 2015.
  7. ↑ Moder, Carol (November 2012). "Aviation English". The Encyclopedia of Applied Linguistics. doi:10.1002/9781405198431.wbeal0068. ISBN   9781405194730.
  8. ↑ Alan Stone (1997). How America Got On-line: Politics, Markets, and the Revolution in Telecommunications. Routledge. p. 176. ISBN   9781563245770.
  9. ↑ Chris Binns (2018). Aircraft Systems: Instruments, Communications, Navigation, and Control. Wiley-IEEE Press. p. 50. ISBN   978-1-119-26235-0.
  10. ↑ Craven, W. F.; Cate, J. L. "Army Air Forces in WWII: Volume VII: Services Around the World [Chapter 12]". The HyperWar Foundation. Retrieved 2011-11-07.
  11. ↑ "Obituaries—Charles Bovill". The Daily Telegraph . 9 May 2001. Retrieved 2011-11-07.
  12. ↑ MacIntyre, Peter D.; Charos, Catherine (March 1996). "Personality, Attitudes, and Affect as Predictors of Second Language Communication". Journal of Language and Social Psychology. 15 (1): 3–26. CiteSeerX   10.1.1.529.1383 . doi:10.1177/0261927x960151001. S2CID   55287183.
  13. 1 2 Ragan, Peter H. (1997). "Aviation English: An Introduction". Journal of Aviation/Aerospace Education & Research. 7 (2): 25–36.
  14. 1 2 Tiewtrakul, T.; Fletcher, S.R. (February 2010). "The challenge of regional accents for aviation English language proficiency standards: A study of difficulties in understanding in air traffic control–pilot communications". Ergonomics. 53 (2): 229–239. doi:10.1080/00140130903470033. PMID   20099176. S2CID   205403741.
  15. 1 2 3 Tajima, Atsushi (August 2004). "Fatal miscommunication: English in aviation safety". World Englishes. 23 (3): 451–470. doi:10.1111/j.0883-2919.2004.00368.x.
  16. ↑ Pilot-Controller Communication Errors: An Analysis of Aviation Safety Reporting System (ASRS) Reports. Cambridge: Research and Special Programs Administration john A. Volpe National Transportation Systems Center. August 1998. p. VII.
  17. ↑ Skaltsas, Gerasimos; Rakasb, Jasenka; Karlaftis, Matthew G. (March 2013). "An analysis of air traffic controller-pilot miscommunication in the NextGen environment". Journal of Air Transport Management. 27: 46–51. doi:10.1016/j.jairtraman.2012.11.010.
  18. ↑ Gillespie, Brigid M. (May 2012). "Interruptions and Miscommunications in Surgery: An Observational Study". AORN Journal. 95 (5): 576–590. doi:10.1016/j.aorn.2012.02.012. hdl: 10072/47519 . PMID   22541769.
  19. ↑ Bowles, Hugo (January 2014). "How about getting those guys in the tower to speak English? Miscommunication, ELF and Aviation Safety". Textus: 85–100.
  20. ↑ Mattson, Marifran; Petrin, Donald A.; Young, John P. (2001). "Integrating safety in the aviation system: Interdepartmental training for pilots and maintenance technicians". Journal of Air Transportation World Wide. 6 (1): 37–63.
  21. 1 2 Moder, C (November 2012). "Aviation English". The Encyclopedia of Applied Linguistics. doi:10.1002/9781405198431.wbeal0068. ISBN   9781405194730.
  22. ↑ Knoch, Ute (2014). "Using subject specialists to validate an ESP rating scale: The case of the International Civil Aviation Organization (ICAO) rating scale". English for Specific Purposes. 33: 77–86. doi:10.1016/j.esp.2013.08.002.
  23. ↑ Kim, Hyejeong (2013). "Exploring the construct of aviation communication : a critique of the ICAO language proficiency policy" (PDF). Papers in Language Testing and Assessment.
  24. ↑ Alderson, J.C. (2011). "The Politics of Aviation English Testing". Language Assessment Quarterly. 8 (4): 386–403. doi:10.1080/15434303.2011.622017. S2CID   145674682.
  25. ↑ Read, J (2000). "Clearing the air: applied linguistic perspectives on aviation communication". Australian Review of Applied Linguistics. 32 (3): 21.1–21.11. doi: 10.2104/aral0921 .
  26. 1 2 Mathews, E (2008). "ICAO Language Proficiency Requirements" (PDF). Aviation English Academy.
  27. ↑ Alderson, J.C. (March 2009). "Air Safety, Language Assessment Policy, and Policy Implementation: The Case of Aviation English" (PDF). Annual Review of Applied Linguistics. 29: 168–187. doi:10.1017/s0267190509090138. S2CID   143807257.
  28. ↑ Helmreich, R; Davies, J (2004). "Culture, threat, and error: Lessons from aviation". Canadian Journal of Anesthesia. 51: R1–R4. doi: 10.1007/bf03018331 .
  29. ↑ Tiewtrakul, T.; Fletcher, S.R. (February 2010). "The challenge of regional accents for aviation English language proficiency standards: A study of difficulties in understanding in air traffic control–pilot communications". Ergonomics. 53 (2): 229–239. doi:10.1080/00140130903470033. PMID   20099176. S2CID   205403741.
  30. ↑ Talburt, Susan; Stewart, Melissa (June 1999). "What's the Subject of Study Abroad?: Race, Gender, and 'Living Culture'". The Modern Language Journal. 83 (2): 173. doi:10.1111/0026-7902.00013.
  31. ↑ Trippe, Julia; Pederson, Eric (2013). "Prosodic profile of American Aviation English". Journal of the Acoustical Society of America. 134 (5): 4249. Bibcode:2013ASAJ..134.4249T. doi:10.1121/1.4831636.
This page is based on this Wikipedia article
Text is available under the CC BY-SA 4.0 license; additional terms may apply.
Images, videos and audio are available under their respective licenses.