Battle of Handan | |||||||
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Part of Warring States Period | |||||||
Battle of Handan | |||||||
| |||||||
Belligerents | |||||||
Qin | Zhao Wei Chu | ||||||
Commanders and leaders | |||||||
Wang Ling Wang He Zheng Anping | Zhao: Wei: Chu: | ||||||
Strength | |||||||
Qin: 650,000 | Zhao: All forces Wei: 80,000 Chu: 100,000 | ||||||
Casualties and losses | |||||||
Qin suffered a major defeat, which was rare in the late Warring States period. | Zhao slightly recovered from the Battle of Changping and managed to survive for several more decades. |
The Battle of Handan began in 259 BC and concluded in 257 BC, during which the garrison of Handan, the capital city of Zhao, joined by the allied force of Wei and Chu, defeated the invading army of Qin. It was one of the most remarkable failures of the Qin army after the Reform of Shang Yang.
Just months prior to the siege, Zhao suffered a major loss in Battle of Changping, during which more than 400,000 soldiers were killed by the Qin army led by Bai Qi. When the state of Zhao was still in pain, Qin launched another attack to the Shangdang region of Zhao. Qin quickly captured Pilao and Taiyuan which caused panics in Zhao and Han states. To stop Qin's invasion, Han and Zhao ceded several towns to Qin. Fan Ju, the chancellor of Qin, persuaded the King Zhaoxiang of Qin to take those towns and stop the military campaign, while the general Bai Qi wanted to keep on invading those two states aiming to wipe them out completely. The king accepted Fan Ju's strategy and stopped the campaign, which caused some conflict between Fan Ju and Bai Qi. [1]
When King Xiaocheng of Zhao planned to cede six towns according to the treaty, some governors stopped him. A governor called Yu Qing told the king that ceding towns to Qin would only made Qin a bigger threat. He suggested that instead of ceding six towns to Qin, Zhao should cede six towns to Qi in order to gain the support from the powerful state in the east. Meanwhile, Zhao should form an allied force with Han, Wei, Yan and Chu to stop the eastward expansion of Qin together. The king took the suggestion of Yu Qing and began to prepare a potential total conflict against Qin. [2]
Qin was annoyed by Zhao after Zhao refused to cede six towns as promised. The king of Qin decided to launch another war. He wanted to make Bai Qi the general, but Bai Qi refused to do so because he knew that this was not a good chance to defeat Zhao since Zhao was well prepared and was allied with other states. [3]
In July of 259 BC, Qin started the war against Zhao. Wang Ling was appointed as the leading general of Qin forces. Wang led Qin troops to Handan and besieged the city. Soldiers of Zhao fought very hard because they knew that if they lost, the state of Zhao would no longer exist. Wang Ling was trapped under the wall of Handan for almost two years, and five of his vice generals were killed in the battle. The king of Qin asked Bai Qi to replace Wang Ling but Bai Qi refused once more. Then, the king sent Wang He to the frontline to reinforce Wang Ling. [4]
In 258 BC, when the defense of Handan was hard, Zhao decided to call for help from Chu and Wei. The king of Zhao sent Lord Pingyuan to Chu to ask for the reinforcement. Lord Pingyuan planned to select 20 assistants from his entourages but only 19 spots were filled. An entourage named Mao Sui recommended himself to be the 20th assistant. Lord Pingyuan said, "Talent is to a person what a pin is to a bag. The pin would break the bag no matter what, so people would see it. Talent could not be hidden. You have been here for three years but you have done nothing amazing. If you were talented, I should have noticed it." Mao Sui said, "You never saw the pin of my talent because you have never put it into a bag." Lord Pingyuan thought it was a good reply, so he let Mao Sui to go with him. [5]
Lord Pingyuan and his 20 assistants arrived in the capital city of Chu. Lord Pingyuan met the King Kaolie of Chu and asked for the reinforcement but the king was hesitating. Mao Sui drew his sword out and approached the king of Chu, yelling at the king, "Why are you hesitating?" The king of Chu asked, "Who is this man?" Lord Pingyuan answered, "He is one of my assistants." The king said, "How come a low-ranked assistant could yell at me?" Mao Sui said to the king, "You are respected by others because you are the king of Chu, a state with great military strength. However, at the present, I am only five steps away from you, so your soldiers could not save you if I am going to kill you. Now you should listen to me. " Then he listed importance and benefits of rescuing Zhao. The king of Chu was impressed, so he agreed to send a troop of 100,000 soldiers, led by Lord Chunshen, to Handan to fight along with Zhao. [6]
At the same time, the wife of Lord Pingyuan wrote to the king of Wei to ask for help. Her younger brother was Lord Xinling of state Wei. Wei agreed to send 80,000 men to Handan to rescue Zhao. This troop was led by general Jin Bi. Knowing Wei was attempting to join the force with Zhao, Qin sent a word to the king of Wei to threat him. The envoy of Qin told the king of Wei that if Wei gave Zhao any reinforcement, Qin would attack Wei after wiping out Zhao. The king of Wei was scared, so he asked Jin Bi to stop moving forward. Jin Bi and the troop set a base at the city of Ye and stopped from marching towards Handan. Lord Xinling tried to persuade the king of Wei to continue supporting Zhao, but the king refused due to the fear. Therefore, Lord Xinling decide to lead his own army (about 100 chariots) to Handan in order to save his sister, even though he knew that this would be more like a suicide attack. [7]
A hermit changed Lord Xinling's mind. He gave Lord Xinling some advice. Following the hermit's words, Lord Xinling asked a concubine of the Wei king to steal the Tiger Seal (虎符, a seal for the highest-ranked military commander with which one can give orders to the entire army in the region) from the king's bedroom. Then, Lord Xinling asked a warrior to take the Tiger Seal to see Jin Bi and order him to continue moving forward. Jin Bi checked the Tiger Seal and confirmed it was real, but he still refused to move forward because he somehow knew the Tiger Seal was not given by the king but stolen from the bedroom. Then, the warrior killed Jin Bi and gave the order to the army. The army of Wei then continued marching towards Handan under the lead of Lord Xinling. [8] [9]
In December of 257 BC, armies of both Wei and Chu arrived at Handan. They launched an attack from the backside of Qin army. Meanwhile, Lord Pingyuan led 3,000 soldiers to attack Qin's army from the side of Handan. The army of Qin was defeated by the allied forces of Zhao, Wei and Chu. Wang He and the remnant of Qin army retreated to Fencheng; the vice general of Qin, Zheng Anping, surrendered to Zhao. [10] [11] [12]
King Zhaoxiang of Qin was enraged by the result of the war. He decided that Bai Qi was the one to blame since he refused to be the commander. Later, he forced Bai Qi to commit suicide. Fan Ju was also blamed by the king and lost the position of chancellor.
The state of Zhao survived the total attack. It would last for about 30 years before being eventually conquered by Qin in 222 BC (Handan was captured in 228 BC).
The Battle of Xiaoting (猇亭之戰), also known as the Battle of Yiling and the Battle of Yiling and Xiaoting, was fought between the state of Shu and the state of Wu, between the years 221 and 222 in the early Three Kingdoms period of China. The battle is significant because Wu was able to turn the situation from a series of initial losses into a defensive stalemate, before proceeding to win a decisive victory over Shu. The Wu victory halted the Shu invasion and preceded the death of Liu Bei, Shu's founding emperor.
Zhuge Liang, also commonly known by his courtesy name Kongming, was a Chinese statesman, strategist, and engineer who lived through the end of the Eastern Han dynasty and the early Three Kingdoms period (220–280) of China. During the Three Kingdoms period, he served as the Imperial Chancellor of the state of Shu Han (221–263) from its founding in 221 and later as regent from 223 until his death in September or October 235.
Zhang Fei, courtesy name Yide, was a Chinese military general and politician serving under the warlord Liu Bei in the late Eastern Han dynasty and early Three Kingdoms period of China. Zhang Fei and Guan Yu, who were among the earliest to join Liu Bei, shared a brotherly relationship with their lord and accompanied him on most of his early exploits. Zhang Fei fought in various battles on Liu Bei's side, including the Red Cliffs campaign (208–209), takeover of Yi Province (212–214), and Hanzhong Campaign (217–218). He was assassinated by his subordinates in 221 after serving for only a few months in the state of Shu Han, which was founded by Liu Bei earlier that year.
Zhang Zhao (156–236), courtesy name Zibu, was a Chinese calligrapher, essayist, military general, and politician. He served as an official of the state of Eastern Wu during the Three Kingdoms period of China. Born in the late Eastern Han dynasty, Zhang Zhao started his career as a scholar in his native Xu Province before the chaos towards the end of the Eastern Han dynasty forced him to flee south to the Jiangdong region for shelter. In Jiangdong, Zhang Zhao became an adviser to the rising warlord Sun Ce. After Sun Ce's death in the year 200, Zhang Zhao played a key supporting role to Sun Ce's younger brother and successor, Sun Quan, as he consolidated power and his control over the Jiangdong territories. In 208, Zhang Zhao strongly urged Sun Quan to surrender to Cao Cao, a rival warlord, because he believed that they stood no chance against an impending invasion by Cao Cao. However, Sun Quan refused to listen to Zhang Zhao and instead heeded the advice of Lu Su and Zhou Yu. Sun Quan's forces ultimately scored a decisive victory over Cao Cao at the Battle of Red Cliffs in the winter of 208. From 200 until his death in 236, Zhang Zhao served under Sun Quan through the collapse of the Eastern Han dynasty and into the Three Kingdoms period after Sun Quan became the founding emperor of the Eastern Wu state. Throughout his career, Zhang Zhao was known for being a stern, uncompromising and intimidating figure who commanded respect from both his colleagues and Sun Quan. Despite Zhang Zhao's seniority and experience, Sun Quan passed him over twice as a candidate for the position of Imperial Chancellor in 222 and 225 as he believed that Zhang Zhao was so headstrong and stubborn that he would not be able to effectively lead the administration. Nevertheless, Sun Quan paid his due respects to Zhang Zhao as a mentor-like figure who saw him through his formative years to his accession to the throne.
Han Xin was a Chinese military general and politician who served Liu Bang during the Chu–Han Contention and contributed greatly to the founding of the Han dynasty. Han Xin was named as one of the "Three Heroes of the early Han dynasty", along with Zhang Liang and Xiao He.
Wang Ji, courtesy name Boyu, was a military general of the state of Cao Wei during the Three Kingdoms period of China. He started his career as a low-ranking official under Wang Ling, the governor of Qing Province. During this time, he was noted for exemplary performance and was later transferred to the central government in Luoyang. He was subsequently promoted to the position of a commandery administrator, but was briefly removed from office when the Wei regent Sima Yi ousted his co-regent Cao Shuang in a coup d'état in 249. However, he was quickly recalled to government service, promoted to the position of governor of Jing Province and appointed as a military general. From 251 until his death in 261, Wang Ji maintained close but professional working relationships with the Wei regents Sima Shi and Sima Zhao. During this time, he supervised military operations in Jing, Yu and Yang provinces, and defended Wei's eastern and southern borders against attacks by Wei's rival state, Eastern Wu. He also assisted Sima Shi and Sima Zhao in suppressing two of the three Shouchun rebellions in 255 and 257–258 respectively. In 261, in the months just before his death, he correctly pointed out that two Eastern Wu military officers were pretending to defect to Wei, and managed to stop the Wei forces from falling into a trap.
Lord Mengchang, born Tian Wen, was an aristocrat and statesman of the Qi Kingdom of ancient China, one of the famed Four Lords of the Warring States period. He was a son of Tian Ying and grandson of King Wei of Qi. He succeeded to his father's fief in Xue. Lord Mengchang is well known for the size of his entourage. According to the Records of the Grand Historian, he had up to three thousand people in his retinue. Lord Mengchang would eventually become the Chancellor of Qi and of Wei.
Meng Yi was a Chinese military general and politician. As an official of the Qin dynasty, he served in the court of Qin Shi Huang. He was a younger brother of the general Meng Tian. After Qin Shi Huang's death, Meng Yi and his brother were executed by Qin Er Shi on the urging of Zhao Gao.
The Jingnan campaign, or Jingnan rebellion, was a three-year civil war from 1399 to 1402 in the early years of the Ming dynasty of China. It occurred between two descendants of the Ming dynasty's founder Zhu Yuanzhang: his grandson Zhu Yunwen by his first son, and Zhu Yuanzhang's fourth son Zhu Di, Prince of Yan. Though Zhu Yunwen had been the chosen crown prince of Zhu Yuanzhang and been made emperor upon the death of his grandfather in 1398, friction began immediately after Yuanzhang's death. Zhu Yunwen began arresting Zhu Yuanzhang's other sons immediately, seeking to decrease their threat. But within a year open military conflict began, and the war continued until the forces of the Prince of Yan captured the imperial capital Nanjing. The fall of Nanjing was followed by the demise of the Jianwen Emperor, Zhu Yunwen. Zhu Di was then crowned the Ming Dynasty's third emperor, the Yongle Emperor.
Xun Shuang, courtesy name Ciming, was a Chinese essayist, politician, and writer who lived during the Eastern Han dynasty of China. Born in the influential Xun family of Yingchuan Commandery, Xun Shuang, for most of his life, distanced himself from politics because he perceived the political arena to be corrupt and dangerous. He repeatedly turned down offers to serve in the government, and spent his time producing numerous writings and giving lectures. However, in late 189, he was forced to join the civil service and became an official. Within a span of only 95 days, he rose through the ranks quickly from his initial status as a commoner to the highly prestigious office of Minister of Works (司空). Prior to that, within the 95 days, he had held the appointments of Chancellor of Pingyuan (平原相) and Minister of the Household (光祿勳). He died of illness in 190 while secretly making plans with Wang Yun, He Yong and others to eliminate the tyrannical warlord Dong Zhuo, who had hijacked and controlled the Han central government.
The Battle of Xiao or Yao took place between Qin and Jin, both of which were major principality states during the Spring and Autumn Period of Zhou dynasty. It occurred in 627 BC at the Xiao Mountains, a branch of the Qinling Range between Yellow River and Luo River, in modern-day Henan province of China.
Xun Xu, courtesy name Gongzeng, was a Chinese musician, painter, politician, and writer who lived during the late Three Kingdoms period and early Jin dynasty of China. Born in the influential Xun family, he was a great-grandson of Xun Shuang and a distant maternal relative of Zhong Yao's family. He served as an official in the state of Cao Wei in the late Three Kingdoms era before serving under the Jin dynasty.
Deng Qiang was a Chinese military general of the Former Qin dynasty during the Sixteen Kingdoms period. He came to prominence during the reign of Fu Sheng when he helped defeat and kill the Qiang warlord Yao Xiang, but for most of his career he would serve Sheng's successor, Fu Jian. He was a leading figure in the rise of Former Qin, along with Wang Meng, as he led Fu Jian's army to victory against Zhang Ping and Former Yan. He stamped out corruption in the government and put down the rebellions of Fu Jian's relatives and Zhang Yu (張育). He and his peer Zhang Ci were known as the "Enemies of Ten Thousands (萬人敵)", a title previously held by the generals Guan Yu and Zhang Fei during the end of the Han dynasty.
Li Te, courtesy name Xuanxiu (玄休), posthumously King Jing of Chengdu (成都景王) and later Emperor Jing (景皇帝), was the spiritual founder of the Ba-Di-led Cheng-Han dynasty during the Sixteen Kingdoms period of Chinese history. Under the ruling Jin dynasty (266–420), he and many people from present-day Gansu sought refuge in Yizhou due to Qi Wannian's rebellion. In 300, he ousted the rebelling provincial Inspector, Zhao Xin, and established a strong presence in the region. He initially agreed to coexist with the new Inspector, Luo Shang, but due to conflicting interests, they eventually went to war with each other. Li Te had the upper hand early on, and in 303, he hinted at the formation of a new state. However, before he could do so, he was abruptly killed in an ambush by Jin forces. Regardless, his brother Li Liu and his son Li Xiong continued the war, with the latter finally forcing Luo Shang out from the provincial capital, Chengdu in 304. Li Xiong established the state of Cheng, and posthumously honoured his father as a king and later an emperor.
Xu Guang, courtesy name Jiwu, was a minister of Later Zhao during the Sixteen Kingdoms period. He was captured by Shi Le's general Wang Yang (王陽) and served as a servant, but after discovering his potential, he was recruited into Shi Le's army instead. Misconducts by Xu Guang angered Shi Le who had him and family imprisoned in 326. However, Xu Guang won Shi Le's favour back in 328, after his advice earned them a victory over Zhao's rival Han-Zhao. As he became a prominent member of the administration, Xu Guang tried to reduce the power of Shi Le's nephew, Shi Hu but could not convince Shi Le to fully remove him. Shi Hu resented him for this, and after his coup in 333, Shi Hu had him and his ally Cheng Xia executed.
Chen An, courtesy name Huhou, was a Chinese military general and warlord of the Jin dynasty (266–420) and Han-Zhao during the Sixteen Kingdoms period. During the aftermath of the Disaster of Yongjia in northern China, Chen An became a favored general of the Jin prince Sima Bao in Qinzhou, but an assassination attempt on him made by one of Bao's subordinates in 315 prompted him to declare independence in Longcheng. He submitted to the Zhao state in 319 but then rebelled in 322, declaring himself the King of Liang. His reign was short-lived, as he was defeated and executed by Zhao forces the following year.
Qi Wannian, or Qiwannian, was an ethnic Di chieftain and rebel leader during the Western Jin dynasty of China. In 296, he became the leader of a tribal uprising against Jin in Qin and Yong provinces that lasted until 299. The rebellion raised concerns among some ministers regarding the tension between the Han and tribal people while also triggering a mass migration of refugees into Hanzhong and Sichuan.
Wang Yan, courtesy name Yifu, was a Chinese politician. He served as a minister and was one of the pure conversation leaders of the Jin dynasty (266–420). During the reign of Emperor Hui of Jin, Wang Yan grew popular among the court for his mastery in Qingtan and for being a patron of Xuanxue. Wang Yan vacillated between the warring princes during the War of the Eight Princes until he ended up with Sima Yue, who gave him a considerable amount of power in his administration. After Yue died in April 311, Wang Yan led his funeral procession but was ambushed and later executed by the Han-Zhao general, Shi Le at Ningping City. Though a bright scholar, Wang Yan was often associated by traditional historians as one of the root causes for Western Jin's demise due to his influential beliefs.
Shi Yue was a military general of Former Qin during the Sixteen Kingdoms period. Initially starting out as an envoy to Former Yan, he helped the Qin army in capturing Xiangyang and in quelling the rebellion of Fu Jian's cousin, Fu Luo. He was most noted to be one of the main oppositions towards Fu Jian's plan to conquer the Jin dynasty (266–420) in 382, whose failure to win him over led to the disastrous defeat of the Qin army at the Battle of Feishui. After the defeat, he was entrusted the important task of defending Ye, where he urged Fu Pi to get rid of the suspicious Murong Chui but failing to convince his superior once more. Shi was killed in battle against Murong Nong in 384, and his head was used as an offering to Nong's father, Chui.
Zhang Ping was a warlord during the Sixteen Kingdoms period of China. He was initially the Inspector of Bingzhou under the Later Zhao dynasty who later gained autonomy over the province following the decline of the state at the start of the 350s. He wavered his loyalty between Former Qin, Former Yan and the Eastern Jin dynasties until he was able to muster the strength to briefly compete with the Former Qin and Former Yan as a rival state in 357. That year, he went to war with Fu Jiān but was decisively defeated and forced back into submission. Shortly after his defeat, Zhang surrendered to the Former Yan. In 361, Zhang Ping rebelled against the Former Yan over a territorial dispute but was killed by invading Former Qin forces in the process.