Battle of Himera (480 BC)

Last updated
Battle of Himera
Part of the Sicilian Wars
The Battle of Himera by Giuseppe Sciuti.jpg
Romanticised representation of the Battle of Himera
Date480 BC
Location
Himera, Sicily
37°58′26.39″N13°49′26.35″E / 37.9739972°N 13.8239861°E / 37.9739972; 13.8239861
Result
  • Greek victory
  • Syracusan hegemony of Sicily
Belligerents
Syracuse
Akragas 		Carthage
Commanders and leaders
Gelo
Theron 		Hamilcar   †
Strength
Unknown
50,000 infantry [1]
5,000 cavalry [1] 		Unknown
300,000 [1] Modern sources estimate around 50,000
Casualties and losses
Minimal Heavy
Relief Map of Mediterranean Sea.png
Red pog.svg
class=notpageimage|
Location within Mediterranean
Italy relief location map.jpg
Red pog.svg
Battle of Himera (480 BC) (Italy)

The Battle of Himera (480 BC), supposedly fought on the same day as the Battle of Salamis, [2] or at the same time as the Battle of Thermopylae, [3] saw the Greek forces of Gelon, King of Syracuse, and Theron, tyrant of Agrigentum, defeat the Carthaginian force of Hamilcar the Magonid, ending a Carthaginian bid to restore the deposed tyrant of Himera. The alleged coincidence of this battle with the naval battle of Salamis and the resultant derailing of a Punic-Persian conspiracy aimed at destroying the Greek civilization [4] is rejected by modern scholars. [5] Scholars also agree that the battle led to the crippling of Carthage's power in Sicily for many decades. [6] [7] It was one of the most important battles of the Sicilian Wars.

Contents

The discovery in 2007 and 2008 of mass graves from the battle has confirmed the location and nature of the battle. [8] [9] [10]

Background

The Phoenicians had planted trading posts all over the coast of Sicily after 900 BC, but had never penetrated far inland. They had traded with the Elymian, Sicani and Siculi communities and ultimately withdrew without resistance to Motya, Panormus and Solus when the Greeks arrived after 750 BC. [11] These cities remained independent until becoming part of the Carthaginian hegemony after 540 BC, probably when Malchus of Carthage "conquered all Sicily" and sent the captured booty to Tyre. [12]

Carthaginian hegemony and Greeks in Sicily

Carthage created her hegemony in part to resist Greek encroachments in the Phoenician sphere of influence. Phoenicians initially (750–650 BC) did not resist the Greeks, but after the Greeks had reached Iberia sometime after 650 BC, Carthage emerged as the leader of Phoenician resistance. During the 6th century BC, mostly under the leadership of the Magonid dynasty, Carthage established a commercially dominant position in the Western Mediterranean. [13] The Phoenicians in Sicily and the Elymians had teamed up to defeat the Greeks of Selinus and Rhodes near Lilybaeum in 580 BC, the first recorded clash between Phoenicians and Greeks incident in Sicily. The next known Greek incursion in Sicily took place 70 years later.

The Greeks living in Sicily behaved similar to mainland Greeks, expanding their political and commercial domain while keeping the Ionian/Dorian feud alive – the Doric colonies were comparably more aggressive in expanding their territory. As Sicilian trade flourished, the Greeks and the Phoenicians and the Sicilian Greeks colonies became prosperous. This prosperity enabled some of the Greek cities to start to expand their territories again, ultimately leading to the events known as the "First Sicilian War".

Carthage joins the fight

Carthage and Elymians joined forces in 510 BC to oppose the expedition of Prince Dorieus, who had lost the Spartan throne and was seeking to found a colony, showed up to colonize Eryx – after being expelled from Libya by Carthage in 511 BC. Dorieus was defeated and killed; the Greek survivors then founded Heraclea Minoa. [14] Sicilian Greeks (probably the cities of Akragas, Gela and Selinus) fought an undated war of revenge against Carthage, which led to the destruction of Minoa and a treaty which brought economic benefits for the Greeks. [15] An appeal for aid to avenge the death of Dorieus was ignored by mainland Greece, even by Leonidas of Sparta, brother of Dorieus and who later would win immortal fame at Thermopylae in 480 BC. This possibly demonstrated the futility of opposing Carthage by single Greek cities [16] or the unreliability of aid from mainland Greece, a situation that would change with the rise of the Greek tyrants in Sicily.

Greek tyrants

While Carthage remained engaged in Sardinia after 510 BC, most of the Greek cities in Sicily fell under the rule of tyrants. The tyrants of Gela, Akragas and Rhegion successfully expanded their dominion during 505–480 BC, with the Dorian city of Gela being the most successful.

Dorian Greeks dominate Sicily

Cleander (505–498 BC) and his brother Hippocrates (498–491) of Gela successfully took over both Ionian and Dorian Greek territory, and by 490 BC, Zankle, Leontini, Catana, Naxos, besides neighboring Sicel lands and Camarina had fallen to Gela. Gelo, successor of Hippocrates, captured Syracuse and made the city his capital. By using deportation and enslavement, [17] Gelo transformed the former Greek Ionian cities into Greek Dorian ones and made Syracuse the dominant power in Sicily. Meanwhile, Akragas, another Doric city, had taken over neighboring Sikan and Sicel lands under the tyrant Theron (488–472 BC). To forestall any conflicts between Akragas and Syracuse, Gelo and Theron married into each other's families, thus creating a united front against the Sicels and Ionian Greeks of Sicily.

Ionian Greeks call on Carthage

To counter this Doric threat, the Greek Anaxilas of Rhegion, who had captured Zankle from Gela in 490 BC, allied himself with Terillus of Himera, and married the daughter of Terillus. [18] Himera and Rhegion next became allies of Carthage, the tyrants even built up personal relationships with the Magonid dynasty of Carthage. Selinus, a Doric city whose territory bordered Theron's domain, also became a Carthaginian ally – perhaps the fear of Theron and the destruction of Megara Hyblaea (mother city of, Selinus), by Gelo, had played a part in this decision. Thus, 3 power blocks were delicately balanced in Sicily by 483 BC – Ionians dominating the north, Carthage the west, Dorians the east and south. The Sicels and Sikans in the interior remained passive, and if not directly under Greek rule, did not hinder the movements of their forces. The Elmyians joined the Carthaginian alliance.

Prelude

Sicily under the Deinomenids (485-465 BC) Map of Sicily under the Deinomenids (485-465 BC).png
Sicily under the Deinomenids (485-465 BC)

The city of Himera had once requested Phalaris, tyrant of Akragas (570–554 BC), to rule Himera. [19] Theron emulated Phalaris when he deposed Terillus and added Himera to his domain in 483 BC. Terillus had come to power in Himera after expelling the ruling oligarchs (who had taken refuge in Akragas), and he probably lacked popular support, which may have been exploited by Theron. [20] Terillus requested Hamilcar, Suffet of Carthage, and Xenia (guest friend) of Terillus, for aid. Anaxilas also lobbied on his behalf, and sent his own children as hostages to Carthage as a token of loyalty. After a 3-year delay, Hamilcar led a Carthaginian expedition to Sicily in 480 BC, which coincided with the expedition of Xerxes against mainland Greece.

Gelo refuses Greece aid

The mainland Greeks had sent an embassy to Gelon requesting aid against Xerxes. Gelon at first complained that the Greeks spurned his request of aid against the Carthaginians in the past, but he offered to send 24,000 foot, 4000 horse and 200 warships in addition to fully provisioning the combined Greek force in Greece if he was made the supreme commander. [21] The Spartans objected to this, and Gelon then asked to be the commander of either the land or naval forces in exchange for his help. The Athenian envoy then objected, and the Greeks were sent packing empty handed. Gelon also hedged his bets, he sent 3 ships under Cadmus of Kos to Delphi, with instructions to offer his submission to Xerxes in case of a Persian victory. [22]

Carthaginian expedition

Hamilcar is said to have assembled an army numbering 300,000 soldiers from Iberia, Sardinia, Corsica, Italy, Gaul and Africa, [20] generally mercenaries (like the famed Iberian mercenaries) and under the command of a body of Carthaginian officers, along with war chariots, 200 warships and 3,000 transports for the venture. [1] According to the modern historians, the numbers are clearly inflated; the Punic army may not have been significantly larger than that of the Greek coalition. [23] The army had no siege engines and the Etruscans and the Elymians, allies in past struggles against Greeks, were not part of it.

Carthaginian army

The core units of the army came from Africa. The heavy African infantry fought in close formation, armed with long spears and round shields, wearing helmets and linen cuirasses. The light Libyan infantry carried javelins and small shields. The Iberian infantry wore purple bordered white tunics and leather headgear, and fought in a dense phalanx, armed with heavy javelins, long body shields and short thrusting swords. [24] Sardinian and Gallic infantry fought in their native gear, [25] but often were equipped by Carthage.

The Libyans, Carthaginian citizens and the Libyo-Phoenicians provided disciplined, well trained cavalry equipped with thrusting spears and round shields. Iberians and Gauls also provided cavalry, which relied on the all out charge. Libyans also provided the bulk of the heavy, four-horse war chariots for Carthage. [26]

Sicilian Greek army

Gelo and Theron had a well trained, battle tested army at their disposal. In addition to citizens, hired mercenaries from Greeks and Sicels augmented their forces. Gelon took out a loan from citizens to fund his war efforts, which indicates the seriousness of the situation. The Syracusan army at Himera is said to have numbered 50,000 foot and 5,000 horse – perhaps another exaggeration. [27] The size of the army of Theron is not known. The main hoplite force came from the citizens of the Sicilian Greek cities. They were augmented by mercenary hoplites hired from Sicily and Italy, and even mainland Greece. Some of the citizens also served as peltasts while the wealthier citizens formed the cavalry units. Sicels and Sikan soldiers also served in the force. Mercenaries provided archers, slingers and cavalry.

Himera campaign

Hamilcar chose not to sail to Selinus and then attack Akragas, although it was the coast closest to Carthage. The Carthaginian fleet, escorted by 60 triremes, sailed to Panormus instead. Hamilcar chose this course probably because restoring Terrilus was his primary objective. The conquest of Sicily, if that indeed was a consideration, took second place to his duty as a guest and friend of Terrilus. The fleet was battered by storms at sea, losing the ships carrying the chariots and horses [28] – which was a significant factor in the coming battle. The Greek fleet, able to muster 200 ships, did not contest the crossing, and in fact played no part in the coming battle.

Carthaginian camps at Himera

Hamilcar spent three days reorganizing his forces at Panormus, and repairing his battered fleet. The Carthaginians marched along the coast to Himera, with the fleet sailing alongside, and encamped near the city. Theron was already present in Himera [28] with his army, but the Greeks did not interfere with Carthaginian operations. The Greek allies of Hamilcar (Greeks of Selinus and Anaxilas of Rhegion) were absent – and never joined the battle.

The city of Himera sits on top of a hill (300–400 feet high) on the western bank of the River Himera. The hill is steep in the northern, western and eastern sides but gradually slopes to the south. There are hills to the west and south of the city. [29] The Carthaginians erected two camps near Himera. The sea camp was set to the north of Himera by the sea, surrounded by a palisade and a ditch. The army was billeted in a separate camp to the south on a low hill west of Himera. The land and sea camps were joined by siege works. [30]

Theron's defeat and Gelo's arrival

It is not known if Hamilcar wished to build siege weapons at Himera or settle the issue through battle. After the camps were erected, the Punic ships dropped off provisions at the sea camp and were sent to Sardinia and Africa for more supplies. [31] Twenty triremes patrolled the sea, the rest of the ships were beached in the sea camp. [32] Himera was not fully invested – the east and south sides were open.

Hamilcar led a picked body of men on reconnaissance mission, and defeated the Greeks in a pitched battle outside Himera. The Greeks blocked the west gates of Himera and their morale also fell, while the Carthaginian foragers ranged the territory of Himera. Theron sent messages to Gelo, who arrived with his army and encamped across the river. Gelon's cavalry managed to capture many of the foragers, as Hamilcar had no cavalry present to counter his moves. The morale in Himera improved, and the bricked-up gates were cleared on Gelo's orders.

Battle

Herodotus and Diodorus Siculus give different versions of the battle, which are hard to reconcile. Diodorus provides a more detailed account.

Herodotus on Himera

The Greek and Punic armies fought from dawn to dusk, while Hamilcar watched the battle from his camp and offered sacrifices to Baal in a huge fire. No information on numbers, battle formation or battle site is given. When the Carthaginian army was routed towards dusk, Hamilcar jumped into the sacrificial fire. His body was never found [33] and the Greeks erected a monument to his memory where he supposedly died. Herodotus noted that Sicilian tradition held that this battle and the battle of Salamis were fought on the same day. [34]

First Battle of Himera 480 BC. A generic representation, not to exact scale, geographic features partially shown and path of troop movements and dispositions are indicative because of lack of primary source data. Himera480.PNG
First Battle of Himera 480 BC. A generic representation, not to exact scale, geographic features partially shown and path of troop movements and dispositions are indicative because of lack of primary source data.

Diodorus Siculus and other sources

The actions of the Greek cavalry in countering Carthaginian foragers prompted Hamilcar to send a letter to Selinus requesting them to send their cavalry to Himera on a given date that Hamilcar was to offer a sacrifice to Poseidon [35] – a Greek deity whose worship probably required the presence of Greeks. The letter was intercepted by Gelo's men. Gelo planned to use his own cavalry to impersonate the Selinute reinforcement and infiltrate the Carthaginian camp, while his army attacked the land camp.

Greeks attack the land camp

Gelo's horsemen left their camp on the night before the appointed day, and at daybreak these horsemen arrived at the Carthaginian sea camp and were admitted into the camp. Greeks spotted them inside the Carthaginian camp from Himera and signaled Gelo. It is not known if the Syracusan army was inside Gelo's camp or had assembled somewhere outside at that time. The Greeks marched around the south end of Himera and moved towards the Carthaginian land camp. Theron and his army stayed put in Himera. The Carthaginian army left their camp and formed up on the hill, forcing the Greeks to fight an uphill battle. The struggle was fierce and long and neither side gained any advantages.

Death of Hamilcar

Sometime after the battle was joined, the disguised Greek horsemen killed Hamilcar while he was preparing the sacrifice, and then set fire to the beached ships, causing great confusion at the sea camp. [36] It is not known what further role the Greek cavalry played in the battle. The Carthaginians rushed to launch whatever ships they could save and some of the ships, overcrowded with soldiers, left the site altogether. When the news of Hamilcar's death and the burning of ships reach the fighting armies, the Greeks pressed harder and routed the Carthaginians, who fled to their camp.

In an alternative version, Gelo ordered Pediarchos, his captain of archers, to "dress as the tyrant" to impersonate him and offer sacrifices in front of the camp. Pediarchos was surrounded by archers who had concealed bows in their dress while he impersonated Gelo. Hamilcar was obliged to come out to offer sacrifices also, and the bowmen shot him down. [37]

Theron takes action

Gelo's army stormed the Carthaginian camp and the Greeks scattered to loot the tents. The Iberians of the Carthaginian army reformed, and they attacked the now disordered Greeks, inflicting severe casualties. [38] The Greeks fought back, but they were hard pressed and the Iberians got the upper hand in the struggle. At this critical juncture Theron decided to join the battle. He directed his attack on the flank and rear of the Iberian position inside the camp and also set fire to tents near them. The Iberians finally gave way, and retreated to the ships still afloat. [32] Other Carthaginian survivors left the camp and retreated to a hill inland, where they attempted to defend themselves. The hill was waterless and they were ultimately forced to surrender. [35] About half of the Carthaginian army and majority of the fleet was destroyed, numerous prisoners and rich booty had fallen into Greek hands. It is commented that the surviving Carthaginian ships were sunk in a storm on their return journey to Africa. [35]

Aftermath

Gelo and Theron did not attack Rhegion or the Carthaginian territory in Sicily after the battle. Carthage initially manned the city walls and prepared for a Greek invasion of Africa, and did not renew the struggle either. Gelo offered mild terms to the Carthaginian embassy that arrived asking for a ceasefire. Carthage paid 2,000 silver talents as indemnity, erected two monuments in the memory of Himera, but lost no territory. Selinus and Rhegion also came to terms with Syracuse and Anaxilas married his daughter to Hieron I, brother of Gelo. The status quo before the battle was reestablished - Terrilus being the ultimate loser. Greek culture and trade flourished in Sicily. Gelo, Theron and Hieron built public buildings using the slaves and spoils gained from the battle, such as the Temple of Victory. An era of prosperity began, but infighting among the tyrants ensured that the peace was not unbroken. Carthage focused on expanding in Africa, leaving Sicily alone for 70 years. Apart from an obscure clash in 454 BC, the Greeks and Phoenicians left each other alone in Sicily.

Himera remained in the possession of Akragas until 472 BC. Theron expelled the Ionians after they attempted a coup and settled the city with Dorian Greeks. By 466 BC, the Sicilian Greek cities had broken away from the dominions of Gelo and Theron and had overthrown the tyrants' heirs, so in place of three Greek power blocks dominating Sicily (those of Syracuse, Akragas and Rhegion), eleven bickering Greek commonwealths came into being by 461 BC. They continued the Ionic/Doric feud in full force. Their actions ultimately led to the "Second Sicilian War" and the final destruction of Himera in 409 BC.

2008 mass grave discovery

During the construction of a railway extension in 2008, near the site of the ancient Greek city of Himera, archeologists uncovered more than 10,000 burials. A number of those graves held the remains of 5th century BC soldiers. [39] [40] Researchers note that DNA sequencing determined that warriors who took part in second battle were mercenaries brought from as far as modern-day Ukraine and Latvia. [8] [9] [10]

Notes

  1. 1 2 3 4 Diodorus Siculus XI.20
  2. ↑ Herodotus, 7.166
  3. ↑ Diodorus Siculus, 11.24.1
  4. ↑ Diodorus Siculus, XI.1
  5. ↑ Cambridge Ancient History. Vol. IV. pp. 773–774.
  6. ↑ Baker, G. P. (1999). Hannibal. pp. 15–17. ISBN   0-8154-1005-0.
  7. ↑ Cambridge Ancient History. Vol. IV. p. 775.
  8. 1 2 Bertolino, Francesco; Alaimo, Flavia; Vassallo, Stefano (2015). "Battles of Himera (480 and 409 b.c.): Analysis of Biological Finds and Historical Interpretation. Experiences of Restoration in the Ruins of Himera 2008–2010". Conservation Science in Cultural Heritage. 15 (2): 27–40. doi:10.6092/issn.1973-9494/7115.
  9. 1 2 "This 2500-year-old mass grave of troops from the second Battle of Himera in Sicily hides a Revelation About Ancient Greece". The Archaeologist. Retrieved 2022-11-30.
  10. 1 2 Lidz, Franz (2022-10-04). "Hidden in 54 Corpses, a Revelation About Ancient Greece". The New York Times. ISSN   0362-4331 . Retrieved 2022-11-30.
  11. ↑ Thucydides VI.2.6
  12. ↑ Freeman, Edward A., History of Sicily, Volume 1, p283-297 – public domain book
  13. ↑ Markoe, Glenn E., Phoenicians, p54-55 ISBN   0-520-22614-3
  14. ↑ Diodorus Siculus IV.23
  15. ↑ Freeman, Edward A, History of Sicily, Volume 2, p97-100
  16. ↑ Baker, G.P., Hannibal, p15
  17. ↑ Freeman, Edward A, History of Sicily, Volume 2, p130-31 – public domain book
  18. ↑ Herodotus, VII.163
  19. ↑ Aristotle, Rhetoric, II.20
  20. 1 2 "pulled away from Himera, Terillos, son of Crinippos, being tyran of Himera, lead in the country in this time army of Phoenicians (Φοινίκων), Libyans (Λιβύων), Iberians (Ἰβήρων), Ligures (Λιγύων, Ligyans), Elisyces (Ἐλισύκων), Sardones (Σαρδονίων > Sardes) and Kirnis (Κυρνίων > Corsicans) - thirty myriads of men - with their general Amilcas, son of Annon, then king of the Carchedonians, (Καρχηδονίων > Carthaginians )". Herodotus, 7.165
  21. ↑ Herodotus, 7.158
  22. ↑ Herodotus, 7.163
  23. ↑ Cambridge Ancient History Vol. IV p773
  24. ↑ Goldsworthy, Adrian, The fall of Carthage, p 32 ISBN   0-253-33546-9
  25. ↑ Makroe, Glenn E., Phoenicians, p 84-86 ISBN   0-520-22614-3
  26. ↑ Warry, John. Warfare in the Classical World. pp. 98-99.
  27. ↑ Freeman, Edward A., History of Sicily, Vol. 2, p190 – public domain book
  28. 1 2 Diodorus Siculus, XI.20
  29. ↑ Freeman, Edward A., History of Sicily, Volume 1, p. 414-416 – public domain book
  30. ↑ Freeman, Edward A., History of Sicily, Volume 2, p. 186-189 – public domain book
  31. ↑ Diodorus Siculus, XI.26
  32. 1 2 Diodorus Siculus, XI.24
  33. ↑ Herodotus, 7.165-7
  34. ↑ Lewis, Sian, Ancient Tyranny, p123-125, ISBN   0-7486-2125-3
  35. 1 2 3 Diodorus Siculus, XI.21
  36. ↑ Diodorus Siculus, XI.22
  37. ↑ Polyainos I.27
  38. ↑ Polyainos I.28
  39. ↑ "Ancient Mass Graves of Soldiers, Babies Found in Italy". National Geographic News. National Geographic. 17 December 2008. Archived from the original on 31 December 2008.
  40. ↑ Antón, Jacinto (30 January 2011). "La batalla de Himera emerge de las fosas de sus guerreros" [The Battle of Himera emerges from the graves of its warriors]. El País (in Spanish). Barcelona. Retrieved 1 September 2022.

Related Research Articles

Gelon also known as Gelo, son of Deinomenes, was a Greek tyrant of the Sicilian cities Gela and Syracuse, Sicily, and first of the Deinomenid rulers.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Battle of the Himera River (311 BC)</span> 311 BC battle between Carthage and Syracuse

The Battle of the Himera River was fought in 311 BC between Carthage and Syracuse near the mouth of the Himera river. Hamilcar, grandson of Hanno the Great, led the Carthaginians, while the Syracusans were led by Agathocles. Agathocles initially surprised the Carthaginians with an attack on their camp, but the Greeks lost the battle when they were attacked by unexpected Carthaginian reinforcements. The Greek army took many casualties as it retreated. Agathocles managed to gather the remains of his army and retreat to Syracuse, but lost control of Sicily.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Siege of Syracuse (397 BC)</span> Unsuccessful siege by Carthage during Sicilian Wars

The siege of Syracuse in 397 BC was the first of four unsuccessful sieges Carthaginian forces would undertake against Syracuse from 397 to 278 BC. In retaliation for the siege of Motya by Dionysius of Syracuse, Himilco of the Magonid family of Carthage led a substantial force to Sicily. After retaking Motya and founding Lilybaeum, Himilco sacked Messana, then laid siege to Syracuse in the autumn of 397 BC after the Greek navy was crushed at Catana.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Sicilian Wars</span> Series of wars in Magna Graecia (580–265 BC)

The Sicilian Wars, or Greco-Punic Wars, were a series of conflicts fought between ancient Carthage and the Greek city-states led by Syracuse over control of Sicily and the western Mediterranean between 580 and 265 BC.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">History of Carthage</span>

The city of Carthage was founded in the 9th century BC on the coast of Northwest Africa, in what is now Tunisia, as one of a number of Phoenician settlements in the western Mediterranean created to facilitate trade from the city of Tyre on the coast of what is now Lebanon. The name of both the city and the wider republic that grew out of it, Carthage developed into a significant trading empire throughout the Mediterranean. The date from which Carthage can be counted as an independent power cannot exactly be determined, and probably nothing distinguished Carthage from the other Phoenician colonies in Northwest Africa and the Mediterranean during 800–700 BC. By the end of the 7th century BC, Carthage was becoming one of the leading commercial centres of the West Mediterranean region. After a long conflict with the emerging Roman Republic, known as the Punic Wars, Rome finally destroyed Carthage in 146 BC. A Roman Carthage was established on the ruins of the first. Roman Carthage was eventually destroyed—its walls torn down, its water supply cut off, and its harbours made unusable—following its conquest by Arab invaders at the close of the 7th century. It was replaced by Tunis as the major regional centre, which has spread to include the ancient site of Carthage in a modern suburb.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Theron of Acragas</span> Greek Sicilian tyrant of Acragas (died 473 BC)

Theron, son of Aenesidemus, was a Greek tyrant of the town of Acragas in Sicily in Magna Graecia from 488 BC. According to Polyaenus, he came to power by using public funds allocated for the hire of private contractors meant to assist with a temple building project, to instead hire a personal group of bodyguards. With this force at his disposal, he was able to seize control of the town's government. He soon became an ally of Gelo, who at that time controlled Gela, and from 485 BC, Syracuse. Gelo later became Theron's son-in-law.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Battle of Selinus</span> 5th-century BC battle in Sicily

The Battle of Selinus, which took place early in 409 BC, is the opening battle of the so-called Second Sicilian War. The ten-day-long siege and battle was fought in Sicily between the Carthaginian forces under Hannibal Mago and the Dorian Greeks of Selinus. The city of Selinus had defeated the Elymian city of Segesta in 415, an event that led to the Athenian invasion of Sicily in 415 and ended in the defeat of Athenian forces in 413. When Selinus again worsted Segesta in 411, Carthage, responding to the appeal of Segesta, had besieged and sacked Selinus after the Carthaginian offer of negotiations had been refused by the Greeks. This was the first step towards Hannibal's campaign to avenge the Carthaginian defeat at the first battle of Himera in 480. The city of Selinus was later rebuilt, but never regained her former status.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Battle of Himera (409 BC)</span> 5th-century BC battle in Sicily

Near the site of the first battle and great Carthaginian defeat of 480 BC, the Second Battle of Himera was fought near the city of Himera in Sicily in 409 between the Carthaginian forces under Hannibal Mago and the Ionian Greeks of Himera aided by an army and a fleet from Syracuse. Hannibal, acting under the instructions of the Carthaginian senate, had previously sacked and destroyed the city of Selinus after the Battle of Selinus in 409. Hannibal then destroyed Himera which was never rebuilt. Mass graves associated with this battle were discovered in 2008-2011, corroborating the stories told by ancient historians.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Siege of Akragas (406 BC)</span> Siege during the Sicilian wars with Carthage

The siege of Akragas took place in 406 BCE in Sicily; the Carthaginian enterprise ultimately lasted a total of eight months. The Carthaginian army under Hannibal Mago besieged the Dorian Greek city of Akragas in retaliation for the Greek raids on Punic colonies in Sicily. The city managed to repel Carthaginian attacks until a relief army from Syracuse defeated part of the besieging Carthaginian army and lifted the siege of the city.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Battle of Gela (405 BC)</span> 5th-century BC battle in Sicily

The Battle of Gela took place in the summer of 405 BC in Sicily. The Carthaginian army under Himilco, which had spent the winter and spring in the captured city of Akragas, marched to confront the Greeks at Gela. The Syracuse government had deposed Daphnaeus, the unsuccessful general of the Greek army at Akragas, with Dionysius, another officer who had been a follower of Hermocrates. Dionysius schemed and gained full dictatorial powers.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Siege of Motya</span> Siege during Second Sicilian War

The siege of Motya took place in summer 398 BC in western Sicily. Dionysius, after securing peace with Carthage in 405 BC, had steadily increased his military power and had tightened his grip on Syracuse. He had fortified Syracuse against sieges and had created a large army of mercenaries and a large fleet, in addition to employing the catapult and quinqueremes for the first time in history. In 398 BC, he attacked and sacked the Phoenician city of Motya despite the Carthaginian relief effort led by Himilco. Carthage also lost most of her territorial gains secured in 405 BC after Dionysius declared war on Carthage in 398 BC.

The Battle of Messene took place in 397 BC in Sicily. Carthage, in retaliation for the attack on Motya by Dionysius, had sent an army under Himilco, to Sicily to regain lost territory. Himilco sailed to Panormus, and from there again sailed and marched along the northern coast of Sicily to Cape Pelorum, 12 miles (19 km) north of Messene. While the Messenian army marched out to offer battle, Himilco sent 200 ships filled with soldiers to the city itself, which was stormed and the citizens were forced to disperse to forts in the countryside. Himilco later sacked and leveled the city, which was again rebuilt after the war.

Hamilcar I was a Magonid king of Carthage in present-day Tunisia from 510 to 480 BC.

The Battle of Abacaenum took place between the Carthaginian forces under Mago and the Siceliot army under Dionysius in 393 BC near the Sicilian town on Abacaenum in north-eastern Sicily. Dionysius, tyrant of Syracuse, had been expanding his influence over Sicels' territories in Sicily. After Dionysius' unsuccessful siege in 394 BC of Tauromenium, a Carthaginian ally, Mago decided to attack Messana. However, the Carthaginian army was defeated by the Greeks near the town of Abacaenum and had to retire to the Carthaginian territories in Western Sicily. Dionysius did not attack the Carthaginians but continued to expand his influence in eastern Sicily.

The Battle of Chrysas was fought in 392 BC in the course of the Sicilian Wars, between the Carthaginian army under Mago and a Greek army under Dionysius I, tyrant of Syracuse, who was aided by Agyris, tyrant of the Sicel city of Agyrium. Mago had been defeated by Dionysius at Abacaenum in 393, which had not damaged the Carthaginian position in Sicily. Reinforced by Carthage in 392, Mago moved to attack the Sicles allied with Syracuse in central Sicily. After the Carthaginians reached and encamped near the river Chrysas, the Sicels harassed the Carthaginian supply lines causing a supply shortage, while the Greek soldiers rebelled and deserted Dionysius when he refused to fight a pitched battle. Both Mago and Dionysius agreed to a peace treaty, which allowed the Carthaginians to formally occupy the area west of the River Halycus, while Dionysius was given lordship over the Sicel lands. The peace would last until 383, when Dionysius attacked the Carthaginians again.

The siege of Tauromenium was laid down by Dionysius, tyrant of Syracuse, in the winter of 394 BC, in the course of the Sicilian Wars against Carthage. After defeating the Carthaginians at the Battle of Syracuse in 397 BC, Dionysius had been expanding his territory and political influence by conquering Sicel lands and planting Greek colonies in northeastern Sicily. Tauromenium was a Sicel city allied to Carthage and in a position to threaten both Syracuse and Messina. Dionysius laid siege to the city in the winter of 394 BC, but had to lift the siege after his night assault was defeated. Carthage responded to this attack on their allies by renewing the war, which was ended by a peace treaty in 392 BC that granted Dionysius overlordship of the Sicels, while Carthage retained all territory west of the Halykos and Himera rivers in Sicily.

Himilco was a member of the Magonids, a Carthaginian family of hereditary generals, and had command over the Carthaginian forces between 406 BC and 397 BC. He is chiefly known for his war in Sicily against Dionysius I of Syracuse.

The siege of Segesta took place either in the summer of 398 BC or the spring of 397 BC. Dionysius the Elder, tyrant of Syracuse, after securing peace with Carthage in 405 BC, had steadily increased his military power and tightened his grip on Syracuse. He had fortified Syracuse against sieges and had created a large army of mercenaries and a large fleet, in addition to employing catapults and quinqueremes for the first time in history. In 398 BC he attacked and sacked the Phoenician city of Motya despite a Carthaginian relief effort led by Himilco II of Carthage. While Motya was under siege, Dionysius besieged and assaulted Segesta unsuccessfully. Following the sack of Motya, Segesta again came under siege by Greek forces, but the Elymian forces based in Segesta managed to inflict damage on the Greek camp in a daring night assault. When Himilco of Carthage arrived in Sicily with the Carthaginian army in the spring of 397 BC, Dionysius withdrew to Syracuse. The failure of Dionysius to secure a base in western Sicily meant the main events of the Second Sicilian war would be acted out mostly in eastern Sicily, sparing the Elymian and Phoenician cities the ravages of war until 368 BC.

The siege and subsequent sacking of Camarina took place in 405 BC during the Sicilian Wars.

The history of Greek Sicily began with the foundation of the first Greek colonies around the mid 8th century BC. The Greeks of Sicily were known as Siceliotes.

References

This page is based on this Wikipedia article
Text is available under the CC BY-SA 4.0 license; additional terms may apply.
Images, videos and audio are available under their respective licenses.