Behavior management

Last updated

Behavior management, similar to behavior modification, is a less-intensive form of behavior therapy. Unlike behavior modification, which focuses on changing behavior, behavior management focuses on maintaining positive habits and behaviors and reducing negative ones. Behavior management skills are especially useful for teachers and educators, healthcare workers, and those working in supported living communities. [1] This form of management aims to help professionals oversee and guide behavior management in individuals and groups toward fulfilling, productive, and socially acceptable behaviors. Behavior management can be accomplished through modeling, rewards, or punishment.

Contents

Research

Influential behavior management researchers B.F. Skinner and Carl Rogers both take different approaches to managing behavior.

Skinner claimed that anyone can manipulate behavior by identifying what a person finds rewarding. [2] Once the rewards are known, they can be given in exchange for good behavior. Skinner called this "Positive Reinforcement Psychology."

Rogers proposed that the desire to behave appropriately must come before addressing behavioral problems. This is accomplished by teaching the individual about morality, including why one should do what is right. Rogers held that a person must have an internal awareness of right and wrong. [3]

Many principles and techniques are the same as in behavior modification. However, they are considerably different and administered less often.

In the classroom

Behavior management is often applied by a classroom teacher as a form of behavioral engineering, in order to raise students' retention of material and produce higher yields of student work completion. This also helps to reduce classroom disruption and places more focus on building self-control and self-regulating a calm emotional state. [4]

American education psychologist, Brophy (1986) writes:

Contemporary behavior modification approaches involve students more actively in planning and shaping their own behavior through participation in the negotiation of contracts with their teachers and through exposure to training designed to help them to monitor and evaluate their behavior more actively, to learn techniques of self-control and problem solving, and to set goals and reinforce themselves for meeting these meetings. (p. 191) [5]

In general, behavior management strategies are effective at reducing classroom disruption. [6] Recent efforts have focused on incorporating principles of functional assessment. [7]

Such strategies can come from a variety of behavioral change theories, although the most common practices rely on using applied behavior analysis principles such as positive reinforcement and mild punishments (like response cost and child time-out). Behavioral practices like differential reinforcement are often used. [8] These may be delivered in a token economy or a level system. [9] In general, the reward component is considered effective. For example, Cotton (1988) reviewed 37 studies on tokens, praise, and other reward systems and found them to be effective in managing student classroom behavior. [10] A comprehensive review of token procedures to match children's level of behavioral severity is found in Walker's text "The Acting Out Child." [11]

Behavior management systems have three main parts: whole group, table group, and individual. Examples may include marble jars for the class, prize charts for tables, and a grid chart with 25 spaces for individual students. Many types of charts can be found to use in each situation. [12]

Effective behavior management depends on using tools that are appropriate to each situation. One effective tool is the High Card/Low Card system. To use a high card, the educator or instructor uses strong intervention to address the issue. Some examples of High Cards are:

A Low Card approach is a less invasive way to address a behavioral issue and may include:

Some student behaviors must be addressed immediately and could cause a teacher to interrupt teaching in order to resolve the issue. This is known as a direct cost situation. This typically arises in extreme behavior situations like physical disputes between students, loud outbursts in class, or disrupting the class disrespectfully.

Purkey proposed a visualization way to keep track of the methods used to manage student behavior. [13] He called it the "Blue-card, orange-card theory". Blue cards help reinforce good behavior and ways to encourage a student. Orange cards, in contrast, are things that may be critical, discouraging, or demeaning. Some examples of blue cards might be bringing up the good things a student has done before focusing on the behavior that needs to change, therefore reminding the student that they have worth and causing them to feel encouraged. An orange card could list ways to critique a student's work in front of the class, which would lower their feelings of self-worth, providing an example of what to avoid. Teachers can be aware and provide students with required critique and feedback, while reinforcing their self-image. Purkey's theory helps teachers understand how they can edit behavioral management specifically in the classroom.

In supported living

When bringing behavioral management in relation with supported living the purpose of this is to keep a person's dignity. Most of the time, residents have some behavior that is meant to be improved in order for them to live a more normal life. Our main goal of the behavioral management is to help them become as independent as possible. Of course, it's important to recognize that not every resident will be back to being completely independent.

There are a lot of ways to help residents be more independent and we will look at some of those here

It's important we first take a look at each resident's history. It is important that we evaluate the resident and their situation. To explain, many of them will have gone through an experience that may have started the behavior change in the first place. Some examples of these are child abuse, trauma, anxiety, depression, etc.

Once a person is in the behavior management process, we have to consider their behavior daily. We should also be meeting with them regularly in order to keep accurate data of their behavior. In this way we can look back and make modifications to what they need during the behavior management process. It is very important to listen and engage with the residents. This can help them feel more comfortable. It is essential that there is an established relationship to help these residents with their behavior. Residents must be treated with compassion and kindness.

Each resident will be different and need a variety of attention. However, it is important to consider what will be needed in order to get to their success. The main goal of the behavior management is to address the behavior issue in order to keep them independent.

When with a resident there are a variety of behaviors you may come into contact with. You will not only need to know what to do in each situation but also how to act. Your behavior is crucial to the progress of their behavior. For example, it's important to react to their behaviors without becoming frustrated. It is essential that caregivers focus on the positive and help residents. Additionally, caregivers should refrain from hurried motions to keep residents calm. It is important that staff is properly trained and understands what to do in certain situations. [14] However it might be necessary to redirect them to a psychologist, psychiatrist, hospital, or a behavior management center may be beneficial. [15]

Building prosocial behavior

Behavioral management principles have used reinforcement, modeling, and punishment to foster prosocial behavior. This is sometimes referred to as behavioral development, a sub-category of which is behavior analysis of child development. The "token economy" is an example of behavioral management approach that seeks to develop prosocial behavior. In this model, socially appropriate behaviors are encouraged and reinforced since these are equivalent to points that can be exchanged for rewards. Examples of situations and behaviors where tokens can be earned include attending groups, taking medication, and refraining from aggressive behaviors, among others. [16]

Several studies have been done in this area to discover effective methods of building prosocial behavior. Midlarsky and colleagues (1973) used a combination of modeling and reinforcement to build altruistic behavior. [17] Two studies exist in which modeling by itself did not increase prosocial behavior; [18] [19] however, modeling is much more effective than instruction-giving (such as "preaching"). [20] [21] The role of rewards has been implicated in the building of self-control [22] and empathy. [23] [24] [25] Cooperation seems particularly susceptible to rewards. [26] [27] [28] [29] Sharing is another prosocial behavior influenced by reinforcement. [30] [31] In a Harvard study, it was proven that acts of kindness and expressing gratitude in the classroom can cause better behavior and increased mood overall. [32]

Reinforcement is particularly effective in the learning environment if context conditions are similar. [33] Recent research indicates that behavioral interventions produce the most valuable results when applied during early childhood and early adolescence. [34] Positive reinforcement motivates better than punishment. Motivation to behavior change is also less damaging to the relationship. [35]

More controversy has arisen concerning behavior management due to the role of punishment in forming prosocial behavior. However, one study found that sharing rates of children could be increased by removing factors that caused a failure to share. [36] The socialization process continues by peers with reinforcement and punishment playing major roles. Peers are more likely to punish cross-gender play and reinforce play specifically to gender. [37] [38] [39]

Positive reinforcement, negative reinforcement, positive punishment, and negative punishment are all forms of operant conditioning. [40] Reinforcements are an attempt to change behavior, either positively or negatively. Positive reinforcement attempts to increase a behavior by adding something the target wants (e.g. awarding good behavior with a treat). Negative reinforcement is attempting to increase behavior by removing something unwanted from the target. (e.g., a child's room is messy and their mother nags them to clean it up, they will eventually try to keep it clean to stop the mother from nagging them). Punishment is trying to decrease behavior, either by using negative or positive stimuli. Positive punishment is when one adds an unwanted stimulus to decrease the target's behavior (e.g., spanking a child when they behave badly). Here, spanking is being added to decrease undesired behavior. Negative punishment is when one removes something the target enjoys or likes to decrease their undesired behavior. (e.g. a child comes home past curfew every weekend, so if their mother bans them from watching TV when they are past curfew, the child will eventually try to come home on time). This is negative punishment because the child likes to watch TV, so when the mother takes that away from them, they dislike the consequence. Thus, they will be more likely to come home in time to avoid having that privilege taken away.

Maslow's hierarchy of needs Maslow's hierarchy of needs.png
Maslow's hierarchy of needs

Abraham Maslow is a very well-known humanist psychologist, known for his work on the hierarchy of needs, in which he states that humans must have one level of needs satisfied before attaining the next level. [41] There are five needs that are being satisfied in sequence: physiological, safety, social, esteem, and self-actualization. [42] Maslow also claims that humans' needs are never completely fulfilled and that this affects how people behave (e.g., if a person's needs are never fully satisfied, [43] then they might not always behave well, even if they do receive a treat for good behavior). A related concept, the "Hawthorne Effect", involves the manipulation of behavior of somebody being observed. For example, if someone is being studied in an experiment, that person might perform better or work harder because they are aware of the attention they are receiving. It is this effect of observation that is called the "Hawthorne Effect". This is interesting because if a child who is behaving very poorly, no matter what, is put in an experiment, they might increase their good behavior. After all, they are receiving attention from the researcher. The point of operant conditioning in behavior modification is to regulate the behavior. This method uses different techniques and ties them all together to monitor behavior. It can lead to problems, however, when talking about Maslow's Hierarchy of needs because in this model Maslow goes on to explain how no one's needs are fully met. The highest point on Maslow's pyramid is self-actualization which Maslow argues is the goal in which we do not reach. This can pose a problem when it comes to behavior modification because one might think if that individual can not reach that ultimate goal, why try at all. Self-actualization is the goal in which humans have this sense of belonging or accomplishment. Humans have an inherent need to achieve goals and attain self-satisfaction; when we do not attain those goals and needs, we feel dissatisfied. When a person does not meet that top goal, that person might feel a void, discouraged because they cannot seem to reach that ultimate step. Using these behavioral modifications or techniques, people can teach themselves how to better attain these goals.

Managing defensive behavior

Understanding and dealing with defensiveness is an important personal skill. Following are some of the strategies: [44]

  1. Recognize that defensive behavior is normal, as "defensive behaviors are intended to reduce a perceive threat or avoid an unwanted threat," It is normal for one to be defensive when they feel that something is their fault. These actions are attempted in order to avoid blame or change of action. [45]
  2. Never attack a person's defenses. Do not try to “explain someone” to themselves by saying things like, “you know the real reason you are using that excuse is that you cannot bear to be blamed for anything.” Instead, try to concentrate on the act itself rather than on the person. [45]
  3. Postpone action. Sometimes it is best to do nothing at all. People frequently react to sudden threats by instinctively closing off and hiding their feelings. When given time the person will be able to give a more composed reaction or answer. These feelings often come from being overloaded, especially in the workplace where overload can have a taxing effect on a person's ability to meet task expectations. [45]
  4. Recognize human limitations. Do not expect to be able to solve every problem that comes up, especially the human ones. More importantly, remember that a layman should not try to be a psychologist. Offering employees understanding is one thing; trying to deal with deep psychological problems is another matter entirely. [45]
  5. Knowing personal limits and expectations is important in helping others with defensive behavior. Being able to have effective self-observation is important because if there is no solid idea of one's feelings, then trying to help others will come across as too aggressive or too reserved. A smart way to start this change is by asking oneself a couple of different questions, such as "what am I feeling", "what am I thinking", "how else can I think about that," etc. Then proceed to automatically notice if the feelings are winding up or down to act accordingly.

An effective strategy to dealing with defensiveness is the SCARF model which was developed by an Australian neuroscientist named David Rock. The five letters stand for status, certainty, autonomy, relatedness, and fairness. Understanding each domain will help explain the fight or flight response when someone is faced with a stressful situation; and focus on each individuals' skills. [46]

Status threats relate to how important the threat is to others and ourselves, looking at how the situation will help lift or put down the other people involved and forget about ego(s).

Certainty threats deal with predicting the future such as when someone says "I never get told anything in this company." It is actually them asking to be kept in the loop about decisions that are being made.

Autonomy threats are based on the control throughout a situation; if someone is having this threat they will feel like they have not had any say or input and become frustrated as a result. In these situations, giving that person a choice is the best option.

Relatedness threats deal with how comfortable someone feels around other people. In this case, the leader of the group needs to make sure that everyone is feeling included and important. Making sure that everyone's voice is heard and they are important individuals.

Finally, the fairness threat is the perception of both parties that the exchange of content and relation is fair and equal. No one wants to feel like they are putting in 80 percent while the other side is only putting in 20 percent. [47]

Related Research Articles

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Carl Rogers</span> American psychologist (1902–1987)

Carl Ransom Rogers was an American psychologist who was one of the founders of humanistic psychology and was known especially for his person-centered psychotherapy. Rogers is widely considered one of the founding fathers of psychotherapy research and was honored for his pioneering research with the Award for Distinguished Scientific Contributions by the American Psychological Association (APA) in 1956.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Maslow's hierarchy of needs</span> Theory of developmental psychology

Maslow's hierarchy of needs is an idea in psychology proposed by American psychologist Abraham Maslow in his 1943 paper "A Theory of Human Motivation" in the journal Psychological Review. Maslow subsequently extended the idea to include his observations of humans' innate curiosity. His theories parallel many other theories of human developmental psychology, some of which focus on describing the stages of growth in humans. The theory is a classification system intended to reflect the universal needs of society as its base, then proceeding to more acquired emotions. The hierarchy of needs is split between deficiency needs and growth needs, with two key themes involved within the theory being individualism and the prioritization of needs. While the theory is usually shown as a pyramid in illustrations, Maslow himself never created a pyramid to represent the hierarchy of needs. The hierarchy of needs is a psychological idea and an assessment tool, particularly in education, healthcare and social work. The hierarchy remains a popular framework, including sociology research, management training, and higher education.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Reinforcement</span> Consequence affecting an organisms future behavior

In behavioral psychology, reinforcement refers to consequences that increase the likelihood of an organism's future behavior, typically in the presence of a particular antecedent stimulus. For example, a rat can be trained to push a lever to receive food whenever a light is turned on. In this example, the light is the antecedent stimulus, the lever pushing is the operant behavior, and the food is the reinforcer. Likewise, a student that receives attention and praise when answering a teacher's question will be more likely to answer future questions in class. The teacher's question is the antecedent, the student's response is the behavior, and the praise and attention are the reinforcements.

Discipline is the self-control that is gained by requiring that rules or orders be obeyed, and the ability to keep working at something that is difficult. Disciplinarians believe that such self-control is of the utmost importance and enforce a set of rules that aim to develop such behavior. Such enforcement is sometimes based on punishment, although there is a clear difference between the two. One way to convey such differences is through the root meaning of each word: discipline means “to teach”, while punishment means “to correct or cause pain”. While punishment might extinguish unwanted behavior in the moment, it is greatly effective long-term due to consequences being understood and societal retribution to wrongs committed, while discipline usually is the process of training self control.

Social learning theory is a theory of social behavior that proposes that new behaviors can be acquired by observing and imitating others. It states that learning is a cognitive process that takes place in a social context and can occur purely through observation or direct instruction, even in the absence of motor reproduction or direct reinforcement. In addition to the observation of behavior, learning also occurs through the observation of rewards and punishments, a process known as vicarious reinforcement. When a particular behavior is rewarded regularly, it will most likely persist; conversely, if a particular behavior is constantly punished, it will most likely desist. The theory expands on traditional behavioral theories, in which behavior is governed solely by reinforcements, by placing emphasis on the important roles of various internal processes in the learning individual. Albert Bandura is known for studying this theory.

Expectancy theory proposes that an individual will behave or act in a certain way because they are motivated to select a specific behavior over others due to what they expect the result of that selected behavior will be. In essence, the motivation of the behavior selection is determined by the desirability of the outcome. However, at the core of the theory is the cognitive process of how an individual processes the different motivational elements. This is done before making the ultimate choice. The outcome is not the sole determining factor in making the decision of how to behave.

Child discipline is the methods used to prevent future unwanted behaviour in children. The word discipline is defined as imparting knowledge and skill, in other words, to teach. In its most general sense, discipline refers to systematic instruction given to a disciple. To discipline means to instruct a person to follow a particular code of conduct.

Content theory is a subset of motivational theories that try to define what motivates people. Content theories of motivation often describe a system of needs that motivate peoples' actions. While process theories of motivation attempt to explain how and why our motivations affect our behaviors, content theories of motivation attempt to define what those motives or needs are. Content theory includes the work of David McClelland, Abraham Maslow and other psychologists.

Behaviour therapy or behavioural psychotherapy is a broad term referring to clinical psychotherapy that uses techniques derived from behaviourism and/or cognitive psychology. It looks at specific, learned behaviours and how the environment, or other people's mental states, influences those behaviours, and consists of techniques based on behaviorism's theory of learning: respondent or operant conditioning. Behaviourists who practice these techniques are either behaviour analysts or cognitive-behavioural therapists. They tend to look for treatment outcomes that are objectively measurable. Behaviour therapy does not involve one specific method, but it has a wide range of techniques that can be used to treat a person's psychological problems.

Behavior modification is a treatment approach that uses respondent and operant conditioning to change behavior. Based on methodological behaviorism, overt behavior is modified with (antecedent) stimulus control and consequences, including positive and negative reinforcement contingencies to increase desirable behavior, as well as positive and negative punishment, and extinction to reduce problematic behavior.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Classroom management</span> Aspect of educational work

Classroom management is the process teachers use to ensure that classroom lessons run smoothly without disruptive behavior from students compromising the delivery of instruction. It includes the prevention of disruptive behavior preemptively, as well as effectively responding to it after it happens. Such disruptions may range from normal peer conflict to more severe disturbances of the social class dynamics, such as bullying among students, which make it impossible for the affected students to concentrate on their schoolwork and result in a significant deterioration of their school performance.

Contingency management (CM) is the application of the three-term contingency, which uses stimulus control and consequences to change behavior. CM originally derived from the science of applied behavior analysis (ABA), but it is sometimes implemented from a cognitive-behavioral therapy (CBT) framework as well.

Punishment is any change in a human or animal's surroundings which, occurring after a given behavior or response, reduces the likelihood of that behavior occurring again in the future. Reinforcement, referring to any behavior that increases the likelihood that a response will occurs, plays a large role in punishment. Motivating operations (MO) can be categorized in abolishing operations, decrease the effectiveness of the stimuli and establishing, increase the effectiveness of the stimuli. For example, a painful stimulus which would act as a punisher for most people may actually reinforce some behaviors of masochistic individuals.

Positive behavior support (PBS) uses tools from applied behaviour analysis and values of normalisation and social role valorisation theory to improve quality of life, usually in schools. PBS uses functional analysis to understand what maintains an individual's challenging behavior and how to support the individual to get these needs met in more appropriate way, instead of using 'challenging behaviours'. People's inappropriate behaviors are difficult to change because they are functional; they serve a purpose for them. These behaviors may be supported by reinforcement in the environment. People may inadvertently reinforce undesired behaviors by providing objects and/or attention because of the behavior.

Positive discipline (PD) is a discipline model used by some schools and in parenting that focuses on the positive points of behavior. It is based on the idea that there are no bad children, just good and bad behaviors. Practitioners of positive discipline believe that good behavior can be taught and reinforced while weaning bad behaviors without hurting the child verbally or physically. People engaging in positive discipline believe that they are not ignoring problems but dealing with the problem differently by helping the child learn how to handle situations more appropriately while remaining kind to the children themselves.

Prosocial behaviour is a social behavior that "benefit[s] other people or society as a whole", "such as helping, sharing, donating, co-operating, and volunteering". The person may or may not intend to benefit others; the behaviour's prosocial benefits are often only calculable after the fact. Obeying the rules and conforming to socially accepted behaviors are also regarded as prosocial behaviors. These actions may be motivated by culturally influenced value systems; empathy and concern about the welfare and rights of others; egoistic or practical concerns, such as one's social status or reputation, hope for direct or indirect reciprocity, or adherence to one's perceived system of fairness; or altruism, though the existence of pure altruism is somewhat disputed, and some have argued that this falls into the philosophical rather than psychological realm of debate. Evidence suggests that prosociality is central to the well-being of social groups across a range of scales, including schools. Prosocial behavior in the classroom can have a significant impact on a student's motivation for learning and contributions to the classroom and larger community. In the workplace, prosocial behaviour can have a significant impact on team psychological safety, as well as positive indirect effects on employee's helping behaviors and task performance. Empathy is a strong motive in eliciting prosocial behavior, and has deep evolutionary roots.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Helping behavior</span> Voluntarily prosocial behaviour

Helping behavior refers to voluntary actions intended to help others, with reward regarded or disregarded. It is a type of prosocial behavior.

Tootling is a classroom-based intervention used to increase peer prosocial behaviors, particularly offering and receiving help, while decreasing negative and disruptive peer interactions. Tootling is like tattling but refers to the reporting of only positive, rather than inappropriate, social behaviors. The idea behind this concept is if young children can learn to tattle on inappropriate behavior, then they are capable of monitoring and reporting prosocial behavior.

Work motivation is a person's internal disposition toward work. To further this, an incentive is the anticipated reward or aversive event available in the environment. While motivation can often be used as a tool to help predict behavior, it varies greatly among individuals and must often be combined with ability and environmental factors to actually influence behavior and performance. Results from a 2012 study, which examined age-related differences in work motivation, suggest a "shift in people's motives" rather than a general decline in motivation with age. That is, it seemed that older employees were less motivated by extrinsically related features of a job, but more by intrinsically rewarding job features. Work motivation is strongly influenced by certain cultural characteristics. Between countries with comparable levels of economic development, collectivist countries tend to have higher levels of work motivation than do countries that tend toward individualism. Similarly measured, higher levels of work motivation can be found in countries that exhibit a long versus a short-term orientation. Also, while national income is not itself a strong predictor of work motivation, indicators that describe a nation's economic strength and stability, such as life expectancy, are. Work motivation decreases as a nation's long-term economic strength increases. Currently work motivation research has explored motivation that may not be consciously driven. This method goal setting is referred to as goal priming.

Employee recognition is the timely, informal or formal acknowledgement of a person's behavior, effort, or business result that supports the organization's goals and values, and exceeds their superior's normal expectations. Recognition has been held to be a constructive response and a judgment made about a person's contribution, reflecting not just work performance but also personal dedication and engagement on a regular or ad hoc basis, and expressed formally or informally, individually or collectively, privately or publicly, and monetarily or non-monetarily.

References

References

  1. ↑ "Behavior Management vs. Behavior Modification What is the Difference?". Positive Pathways Counseling & Consulting, LLC. May 4, 2011. Retrieved June 3, 2021.
  2. ↑ McLeod, S. A. (2018, Jan, 21). Skinner - operant conditioning. Simply psychology. https://www.simplypsychology.org/operant-conditioning.html
  3. ↑ OpenStax CNX. OpenStax CNX. Retrieved May 11, 2021.{{cite book}}: |website= ignored (help)
  4. ↑ Creature, Your Teacher's Pet. "Why Is Positive Behaviour Support Important In The Classroom?". Your Teacher's Pet Creature. Retrieved 2022-01-28.
  5. ↑ Brophy, J. (1986). "Classroom Management Techniques." Education and Urban Society 18/2, 182–194
  6. ↑ Brophy, J.E. (1983) "Classroom Organization and Management." The Elementary School Journal 83/4, 265–285.
  7. ↑ Angela Waguespack, Terrence Vaccaro & Lauren Continere (2006). Functional Behavioral Assessment and Intervention with Emotional/Behaviorally Disordered Students: In Pursuit of State of the Art. International Journal of Behavioral Consultation and Therapy, 2 (4), 463–474.
  8. ↑ Rosemarie Daddario, Karla Anhalt & Lyle E. Barton (2007). Differential Reinforcement of Other Behavior Applied Classwide in a Child Care Setting. International Journal of Behavioral Consultation and Therapy, 3 (3), 342–348. BAO
  9. ↑ Cancio, E. & Johnson, J.W. (2007). Level Systems Revisited: An Impact Tool For Educating Students with Emotional and Behavioral Disorders. International Journal of Behavioral Consultation and Therapy, 3 (4), 512–527
  10. ↑ Cotton, K. (1988). Instructional Reinforcement. Close-Up No. 3. Portland, OR: Northwest Regional Educational Laboratory.
  11. ↑ Walker, H. (1990). The Acting Out Child. Sopris West.
  12. ↑ "3 Part Classroom Management System". SuperTeacherWorksheets.com. Maryann. Retrieved March 4, 2015.
  13. ↑ Purkey, William Watson; Strahan, David B. (2002). Inviting Positive Classroom Discipline. National Middle School Association. ISBN   978-1-56090-129-7.
  14. ↑ "Behavior Management at Christian Health". Christian Health. Retrieved 2024-12-04.
  15. ↑ "theVine - Login". thevinephs.org. Retrieved 2022-07-14.
  16. ↑ Hales, Robert E. (2008). The American Psychiatric Publishing Textbook of Psychiatry. Arlington, VA: American Psychiatric Pub. p. 166. ISBN   978-1-58562-257-3.
  17. ↑ Midlarsky, E., Bryan, J.H., & Brickman, P. (1973). Aversive approval: Interactive effects of modeling and reinforcement on altruistic behavior. Child Development, 44, 321–328
  18. ↑ Harris, M.B.(1970). Reciprocity and generosity: Some determinants of sharing in children. Child Development, 41, 313–328.
  19. ↑ Elliot, R., & Vasta, R. (1970). Effects associated with vicarious reinforcement, symbolization, age, and generalization. Journal of Experimental Child Psychology, 10, 8–15
  20. ↑ Bryan, J.H. & Walbek, N.H. (1970). Impact of words and deeds concerning altruism upon children. Child Development, 41, 747–759
  21. ↑ Bryan, J.H. & Walbek, N. (1970). Preaching and practicing generosity: Children's action and reaction. Child Development, 41, 329–353.
  22. ↑ Barry, L.M. & Haraway, D.L. (2005). Self-Management and ADHD: A Literature Review. The Behavior Analyst Today, 6 (1), 48–64 BAO
  23. ↑ Maccoby, E.M. (1968). The development of moral values and behavior in childhood. In J.A. Clausen's (Ed). Socialization and Society. Little Brown Books: Boston
  24. ↑ Aronfreed, J.(1968). Conduct and conscience: The socializing of internalized control of overt behavior. New York: Academic Press
  25. ↑ Aronfreed, J. (1970). The socialization of altruistic and sympathetic behavior: Some theoretical and experimental analysis. In J. Macauley & L. Berkowitz (Eds.) Altruism and helping behavior. New York: Academic Press.
  26. ↑ Azrin, N. & Lindsley, O. (1956). The reinforcement of cooperation between children. Journal of Abnormal and Social Psychology, 2, 100–102
  27. ↑ Mithaug, E.D., & Burgess, R.L.(1968). The effects of different reinforcement contingencies in the development of social cooperation. Journal of Experimental Child Psychology, 6, 402–426.
  28. ↑ Vogler, R.E., Masters, W.M. & Merrill, G.S.(1970). Shaping cooperative behavior in young children. Journal of Psychology, 74, 181–186.
  29. ↑ Vogler, R.E., Masters, W.M., & Merrill, G.S.(1971). Extinction of cooperative behavior as a function of acquisition by shaping or instruction. Journal of Genetic Psychology, 119, 233–240.
  30. ↑ Doland, D.J. & Adelberg, K.(1967). The learning of sharing behavior. Child Development, 38, 695–700
  31. ↑ Gelfand, D.M., John Hartmann, D.P., Cromer, C.C., Smith, C.L., & Page, B.C.(1975). The effects of instructional prompts and praise on children's donation rates. Child Development, 46, 980–983
  32. ↑ "Promoting Prosocial Behaviors in the Classroom". Edutopia. Retrieved March 10, 2021.
  33. ↑ Fisher, W.F.(1963). Sharing in preschool is a function of the amount and type of reinforcement. Genetic Psychology Monograph, 68, 215–245.
  34. ↑ Januaw.nasponline.org/publications/spr/40-2/spr402january.pdf "A meta-analysis of classroom-wide interventions to build social skills: do they work?", School Psychology Review, 2011.
  35. ↑ Altman, K. (1971). Effects of cooperative response acquisition on social behavior during free play. Journal of Experimental Ch Psychology, 12, 387–395
  36. ↑ Hartmann, D.P., Gelfand, D.M., Smith, C.L., Paul, S.C., Cromer, C.C., Page, B.C. & Lebenta, D.V. (1976). Factors affecting the acquisition and elimination of children's donating behavior. Journal of Experimental Child Psychology, 21, 328–338
  37. ↑ Fagot, B.I., & Patterson, G.R. (1969). An in vivo analysis of reinforcing contingencies for sex-role behaviors in the preschool child. Developmental Psychology
  38. ↑ Lamb, M.E. & Roopnarine, J.L. (1979). Peer influences on sex-role development in preschoolers. Child Development, 50, 1219–1222
  39. ↑ Lamb, M.E., Easterbrooks, M.A., & Holden, G. (1980). Reinforcement and punishment among preschoolers: Characteristics and correlates. Child Development, 51, 1230–1236
  40. ↑ Carey, William B.; Crocker, Allen C.; Elias, Ellen Roy; Feldman, Heidi M.; Coleman, William P. (2009). Developmental-Behavioral Pediatrics, Fourth Edition. Philadelphia, PA: Elsevier Health Sciences. p. 858. ISBN   978-1-4160-3370-7.
  41. ↑ Bryan, Christiansen (2014). Handbook of Research on Effective Marketing in Contemporary Globalism. Hersey, PA: IGI Global. p. 51. ISBN   978-1-4666-6220-9.
  42. ↑ Schermerhorn, Jr., John (2009). Exploring Management, Second Edition. Hoboken, NJ: John Wiley & Sons. p. 34. ISBN   978-0-470-16964-3.
  43. ↑ Ardizzone, Leonisa (3 August 2007). Gettin' My Word Out. Albany, New York: State University of New York Press. p. 29. ISBN   978-0-7914-7962-9.
  44. ↑ M. Feinberg, Effective Psychology for Managers (New York, NY: Simon & Schuster, 1976).
  45. 1 2 3 4 Ashforth, Blake E.; Lee, Raymond T. (July 1, 1990). "Defensive Behavior in Organizations: A Preliminary Model". Human Relations. 43 (7): 621–648. doi:10.1177/001872679004300702. ISSN   0018-7267. S2CID   145126717.
  46. ↑ Campbell, Steven J; Walsh, Kenneth; Prior, Sarah J; Doherty, Douglass; Bramble, Marguerite; Marlow, Annette; Maxwell, Hazel (2022-05-25). "Examining the engagement of health services staff in change management: modifying the SCARF assessment model". International Practice Development Journal. 12 (1): 1–13. doi: 10.19043/ipdj.121.005 . ISSN   2046-9292.
  47. ↑ Sandra Wood (October 30, 2019). "How to Deal With Defensiveness at Work | Great Managers MasterClass". Great Managers. Retrieved March 20, 2021.
This page is based on this Wikipedia article
Text is available under the CC BY-SA 4.0 license; additional terms may apply.
Images, videos and audio are available under their respective licenses.