Behavior management

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Behavior management, similar to behavior modification, is a less-intensive form of behavior therapy. Unlike behavior modification, which focuses on changing behavior, behavior management focuses on maintaining positive habits and behaviors and reducing negative ones. Behavior management skills are especially useful for teachers and educators, healthcare workers, and those working in supported living communities. [1] This form of management aims to help professionals oversee and guide behavior management in individuals and groups toward fulfilling, productive, and socially acceptable behaviors. Behavior management can be accomplished through modeling, rewards, or punishment.

Contents

Research

Influential behavior management researchers B.F. Skinner and Carl Rogers both take different approaches to managing behavior.

Skinner claimed that anyone can manipulate behavior by identifying what a person finds rewarding. [2] Once the rewards are known, they can be given in exchange for good behavior. Skinner called this "Positive Reinforcement Psychology."

Rogers proposed that the desire to behave appropriately must come before addressing behavioral problems. This is accomplished by teaching the individual about morality, including why one should do what is right. Rogers held that a person must have an internal awareness of right and wrong. [3]

Many principles and techniques are the same as in behavior modification. However, they are considerably different and administered less often.

In the classroom

Behavior management is often applied by a classroom teacher as a form of behavioral engineering, in order to raise students' retention of material and produce higher yields of student work completion. This also helps to reduce classroom disruption and places more focus on building self-control and self-regulating a calm emotional state. [4]

American education psychologist, Brophy (1986) writes:

Contemporary behavior modification approaches involve students more actively in planning and shaping their own behavior through participation in the negotiation of contracts with their teachers and through exposure to training designed to help them to monitor and evaluate their behavior more actively, to learn techniques of self-control and problem solving, and to set goals and reinforce themselves for meeting these meetings. (p. 191) [5]

In general, behavior management strategies are effective at reducing classroom disruption. [6] Recent efforts have focused on incorporating principles of functional assessment. [7]

Such strategies can come from a variety of behavioral change theories, although the most common practices rely on using applied behavior analysis principles such as positive reinforcement and mild punishments (like response cost and child time-out). Behavioral practices like differential reinforcement are often used. [8] These may be delivered in a token economy or a level system. [9] In general, the reward component is considered effective. For example, Cotton (1988) reviewed 37 studies on tokens, praise, and other reward systems and found them to be effective in managing student classroom behavior. [10] A comprehensive review of token procedures to match children's level of behavioral severity is found in Walker's text "The Acting Out Child." [11]

Behavior management systems have three main parts: whole group, table group, and individual. Examples may include marble jars for the class, prize charts for tables, and a grid chart with 25 spaces for individual students. Many types of charts can be found to use in each situation. [12]

Effective behavior management depends on using tools that are appropriate to each situation. One effective tool is the High Card/Low Card system. To use a high card, the educator or instructor uses strong intervention to address the issue. Some examples of High Cards are:

A Low Card approach is a less invasive way to address a behavioral issue and may include:

Some student behaviors must be addressed immediately and could cause a teacher to interrupt teaching in order to resolve the issue. This is known as a direct cost situation. This typically arises in extreme behavior situations like physical disputes between students, loud outbursts in class, or disrupting the class disrespectfully.

Purkey proposed a visualization way to keep track of the methods used to manage student behavior. [13] He called it the "Blue-card, orange-card theory". Blue cards help reinforce good behavior and ways to encourage a student. Orange cards, in contrast, are things that may be critical, discouraging, or demeaning. Some examples of blue cards might be bringing up the good things a student has done before focusing on the behavior that needs to change, therefore reminding the student that they have worth and causing them to feel encouraged. An orange card could list ways to critique a student's work in front of the class, which would lower their feelings of self-worth, providing an example of what to avoid. Teachers can be aware and provide students with required critique and feedback, while reinforcing their self-image. Purkey's theory helps teachers understand how they can edit behavioral management specifically in the classroom.

In supported living

When bringing behavioral management in relation with supported living the purpose of this is to keep a person's dignity. Most of the time, residents have some behavior that is meant to be improved in order for them to live a more normal life. Our main goal of the behavioral management is to help them become as independent as possible. Of course, it's important to recognize that not every resident will be back to being completely independent.

There are a lot of ways to help residents be more independent and we will look at some of those here

It's important we first take a look at each resident's history. Many of them will have gone through an experience that may have started the behavior change in the first place. Some examples of these are child abuse, trauma, anxiety, depression, etc.

Once a person is in the behavior management process, we have to consider their behavior daily. We should also be meeting with them regularly in order to keep accurate data of their behavior. In this way we can look back and make modifications to what they need during the behavior management process.

Each resident will be different and need a variety of attention. But it's important to consider what will be needed in order to get to their success. The main goal of the behavior management is to address the behavior issue in order to keep them independent.

When with a resident there are a variety of behaviors you may come into contact with. You will not only need to know what to do in each situation but also how to act. Your behavior is crucial to the progress of their behavior. There may be situations when yourself can't handle the behavior and will need to lead to a bigger solution. Redirecting them to a psychologist, psychiatrist, hospital, or a behavior management center may be beneficial. [14]

Building prosocial behavior

Behavioral management principles have used reinforcement, modeling, and punishment to foster prosocial behavior. This is sometimes referred to as behavioral development, a sub-category of which is behavior analysis of child development. The "token economy" is an example of behavioral management approach that seeks to develop prosocial behavior. In this model, socially appropriate behaviors are encouraged and reinforced since these are equivalent to points that can be exchanged for rewards. Examples of situations and behaviors where tokens can be earned include attending groups, taking medication, and refraining from aggressive behaviors, among others. [15]

Several studies have been done in this area to discover effective methods of building prosocial behavior. Midlarsky and colleagues (1973) used a combination of modeling and reinforcement to build altruistic behavior. [16] Two studies exist in which modeling by itself did not increase prosocial behavior; [17] [18] however, modeling is much more effective than instruction-giving (such as "preaching"). [19] [20] The role of rewards has been implicated in the building of self-control [21] and empathy. [22] [23] [24] Cooperation seems particularly susceptible to rewards. [25] [26] [27] [28] Sharing is another prosocial behavior influenced by reinforcement. [29] [30] In a Harvard study, it was proven that acts of kindness and expressing gratitude in the classroom can cause better behavior and increased mood overall. [31]

Reinforcement is particularly effective in the learning environment if context conditions are similar. [32] Recent research indicates that behavioral interventions produce the most valuable results when applied during early childhood and early adolescence. [33] Positive reinforcement motivates better than punishment. Motivation to behavior change is also less damaging to the relationship. [34]

More controversy has arisen concerning behavior management due to the role of punishment in forming prosocial behavior. However, one study found that sharing rates of children could be increased by removing factors that caused a failure to share. [35] The socialization process continues by peers with reinforcement and punishment playing major roles. Peers are more likely to punish cross-gender play and reinforce play specifically to gender. [36] [37] [38]

Positive reinforcement, negative reinforcement, positive punishment, and negative punishment are all forms of operant conditioning. [39] Reinforcements are an attempt to change behavior, either positively or negatively. Positive reinforcement attempts to increase a behavior by adding something the target wants (e.g. awarding good behavior with a treat). Negative reinforcement is attempting to increase behavior by removing something unwanted from the target. (e.g., a child's room is messy and their mother nags them to clean it up, they will eventually try to keep it clean to stop the mother from nagging them). Punishment is trying to decrease behavior, either by using negative or positive stimuli. Positive punishment is when one adds an unwanted stimulus to decrease the target's behavior (e.g., spanking a child when they behave badly). Here, spanking is being added to decrease undesired behavior. Negative punishment is when one removes something the target enjoys or likes to decrease their undesired behavior. (e.g. a child comes home past curfew every weekend, so if their mother bans them from watching TV when they are past curfew, the child will eventually try to come home on time). This is negative punishment because the child likes to watch TV, so when the mother takes that away from them, they dislike the consequence. Thus, they will be more likely to come home in time to avoid having that privilege taken away.

Maslow's hierarchy of needs Maslow's hierarchy of needs.png
Maslow's hierarchy of needs

Abraham Maslow is a very well-known humanist psychologist, known for his work on the hierarchy of needs, in which he states that humans must have one level of needs satisfied before attaining the next level. [40] There are five needs that are being satisfied in sequence: physiological, safety, social, esteem, and self-actualization. [41] Maslow also claims that humans' needs are never completely fulfilled and that this affects how people behave (e.g., if a person's needs are never fully satisfied, [42] then they might not always behave well, even if they do receive a treat for good behavior). A related concept, the "Hawthorne Effect", involves the manipulation of behavior of somebody being observed. For example, if someone is being studied in an experiment, that person might perform better or work harder because they are aware of the attention they are receiving. It is this effect of observation that is called the "Hawthorne Effect". This is interesting because if a child who is behaving very poorly, no matter what, is put in an experiment, they might increase their good behavior. After all, they are receiving attention from the researcher. The point of operant conditioning in behavior modification is to regulate the behavior. This method uses different techniques and ties them all together to monitor behavior. It can lead to problems, however, when talking about Maslow's Hierarchy of needs because in this model Maslow goes on to explain how no one's needs are fully met. The highest point on Maslow's pyramid is self-actualization which Maslow argues is the goal in which we do not reach. This can pose a problem when it comes to behavior modification because one might think if that individual can not reach that ultimate goal, why try at all. Self-actualization is the goal in which humans have this sense of belonging or accomplishment. Humans have an inherent need to achieve goals and attain self-satisfaction; when we do not attain those goals and needs, we feel dissatisfied. When a person does not meet that top goal, that person might feel a void, discouraged because they cannot seem to reach that ultimate step. Using these behavioral modifications or techniques, people can teach themselves how to better attain these goals.

Managing defensive behavior

Understanding and dealing with defensiveness is an important personal skill. Following are some of the strategies: [43]

  1. Recognize that defensive behavior is normal, as "defensive behaviors are intended to reduce a perceive threat or avoid an unwanted threat," It is normal for one to be defensive when they feel that something is their fault. These actions are attempted in order to avoid blame or change of action. [44]
  2. Never attack a person's defenses. Do not try to “explain someone” to themselves by saying things like, “you know the real reason you are using that excuse is that you cannot bear to be blamed for anything.” Instead, try to concentrate on the act itself rather than on the person. [44]
  3. Postpone action. Sometimes it is best to do nothing at all. People frequently react to sudden threats by instinctively closing off and hiding their feelings. When given time the person will be able to give a more composed reaction or answer. These feelings often come from being overloaded, especially in the workplace where overload can have a taxing effect on a person's ability to meet task expectations. [44]
  4. Recognize human limitations. Do not expect to be able to solve every problem that comes up, especially the human ones. More importantly, remember that a layman should not try to be a psychologist. Offering employees understanding is one thing; trying to deal with deep psychological problems is another matter entirely. [44]
  5. Knowing personal limits and expectations is important in helping others with defensive behavior. Being able to have effective self-observation is important because if there is no solid idea of one's feelings, then trying to help others will come across as too aggressive or too reserved. A smart way to start this change is by asking oneself a couple of different questions, such as "what am I feeling", "what am I thinking", "how else can I think about that," etc. Then proceed to automatically notice if the feelings are winding up or down to act accordingly.

An effective strategy to dealing with defensiveness is the SCARF model which was developed by an Australian neuroscientist named David Rock. The five letters stand for status, certainty, autonomy, relatedness, and fairness. Understanding each domain will help explain the fight or flight response when someone is faced with a stressful situation; and focus on each individuals' skills. [45]

Status threats relate to how important the threat is to others and ourselves, looking at how the situation will help lift or put down the other people involved and forget about ego(s).

Certainty threats deal with predicting the future such as when someone says "I never get told anything in this company." It is actually them asking to be kept in the loop about decisions that are being made.

Autonomy threats are based on the control throughout a situation; if someone is having this threat they will feel like they have not had any say or input and become frustrated as a result. In these situations, giving that person a choice is the best option.

Relatedness threats deal with how comfortable someone feels around other people. In this case, the leader of the group needs to make sure that everyone is feeling included and important. Making sure that everyone's voice is heard and they are important individuals.

Finally, the fairness threat is the perception of both parties that the exchange of content and relation is fair and equal. No one wants to feel like they are putting in 80 percent while the other side is only putting in 20 percent. [46]

Related Research Articles

Operant conditioning, also called instrumental conditioning, is a learning process where voluntary behaviors are modified by association with the addition of reward or aversive stimuli. The frequency or duration of the behavior may increase through reinforcement or decrease through punishment or extinction.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Reinforcement</span> Consequence affecting an organisms future behavior

In behavioral psychology, reinforcement is any consequence that increases the likelihood of an organism's future behavior whenever that behavior is preceded by a particular antecedent stimulus. For example, a rat can be trained to push a lever to receive food whenever a light is turned on. In this example, the light is the antecedent stimulus, the lever pushing is the behavior, and the food is the reinforcement. Likewise, a student that receives attention and praise when answering a teacher's question will be more likely to answer future questions in class. The teacher's question is the antecedent, the student's response is the behavior, and the praise and attention are the reinforcements.

Disciplinarians believe that self control is of the utmost importance and enforce a set of rules that aim to develop such behaviour. Such enforcement is often based on punishment.

Social learning is a theory of learning process social behavior which proposes that new behaviors can be acquired by observing and imitating others. It states that learning is a cognitive process that takes place in a social context and can occur purely through observation or direct instruction, even in the absence of motor reproduction or direct reinforcement. In addition to the observation of behavior, learning also occurs through the observation of rewards and punishments, a process known as vicarious reinforcement. When a particular behavior is rewarded regularly, it will most likely persist; conversely, if a particular behavior is constantly punished, it will most likely desist. The theory expands on traditional behavioral theories, in which behavior is governed solely by reinforcements, by placing emphasis on the important roles of various internal processes in the learning individual.

Expectancy theory proposes that an individual will behave or act in a certain way because they are motivated to select a specific behavior over others due to what they expect the result of that selected behavior will be. In essence, the motivation of the behavior selection is determined by the desirability of the outcome. However, at the core of the theory is the cognitive process of how an individual processes the different motivational elements. This is done before making the ultimate choice. The outcome is not the sole determining factor in making the decision of how to behave.

Child discipline is the methods used to prevent future unwanted behaviour in children. The word discipline is defined as imparting knowledge and skill, in other words, to teach. In its most general sense, discipline refers to systematic instruction given to a disciple. To discipline means to instruct a person to follow a particular code of conduct.

The psychology of learning refers to theories and research on how individuals learn. There are many theories of learning. Some take on a more behaviorist approach which focuses on inputs and reinforcements. Other approaches, such as theories related to neuroscience and social cognition, focus more on how the brain's organization and structure influence learning. Some psychological approaches, such as social constructivism, focus more on one's interaction with the environment and with others. Other theories, such as those related to motivation, like the growth mindset, focus more on individuals' perceptions of ability.

Content theory is a subset of motivational theories that try to define what motivates people. Content theories of motivation often describe a system of needs that motivate peoples' actions. While process theories of motivation attempt to explain how and why our motivations affect our behaviors, content theories of motivation attempt to define what those motives or needs are. Content theory includes the work of David McClelland, Abraham Maslow and other psychologists.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Animal training</span> Teaching animals specific responses to specific conditions or stimuli

Animal training is the act of teaching animals specific responses to specific conditions or stimuli. Training may be for purposes such as companionship, detection, protection, and entertainment. The type of training an animal receives will vary depending on the training method used, and the purpose for training the animal. For example, a seeing eye dog will be trained to achieve a different goal than a wild animal in a circus.

Applied behavior analysis (ABA), also called behavioral engineering, is a psychological intervention that applies approaches based upon the principles of respondent and operant conditioning to change behavior of social significance. It is the applied form of behavior analysis; the other two forms are radical behaviorism and the experimental analysis of behavior.

Behavior modification is a treatment approach that uses respondent and operant conditioning to change behavior. Based on methodological behaviorism, overt behavior is modified with (antecedent) stimulus control and consequences, including positive and negative reinforcement contingencies to increase desirable behavior, or administering positive and negative punishment and/or extinction to reduce problematic behavior. It also uses systematic desensitization and flooding to combat phobias.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Classroom management</span> Aspect of educational work

Classroom management is the process teachers use to ensure that classroom lessons run smoothly without disruptive behavior from students compromising the delivery of instruction. It includes the prevention of disruptive behavior preemptively, as well as effectively responding to it after it happens. Such disruptions may range from normal peer conflict to more severe disturbances of the social class dynamics, such as bullying among students, which make it impossible for the affected students to concentrate on their schoolwork and result in a significant deterioration of their school performance.

Contingency management (CM) is the application of the three-term contingency, which uses stimulus control and consequences to change behavior. CM originally derived from the science of applied behavior analysis (ABA), but it is sometimes implemented from a cognitive-behavior therapy (CBT) framework as well.

In operant conditioning, punishment is any change in a human or animal's surroundings which, occurring after a given behavior or response, reduces the likelihood of that behavior occurring again in the future. As with reinforcement, it is the behavior, not the human/animal, that is punished. Whether a change is or is not punishing is determined by its effect on the rate that the behavior occurs. This is called motivating operations (MO), because they alter the effectiveness of a stimulus. MO can be categorized in abolishing operations, decrease the effectiveness of the stimuli and establishing, increase the effectiveness of the stimuli. For example, a painful stimulus which would act as a punisher for most people may actually reinforce some behaviors of masochistic individuals.

Positive behavior support (PBS) uses tools from applied behaviour analysis and values of normalisation and social role valorisation theory to improve quality of life, usually in schools. PBS uses functional analysis to understand what maintains an individual's challenging behavior and how to support the individual to get these needs met in more appropriate way, instead of using 'challenging behaviours'. People's inappropriate behaviors are difficult to change because they are functional; they serve a purpose for them. These behaviors may be supported by reinforcement in the environment. People may inadvertently reinforce undesired behaviors by providing objects and/or attention because of the behavior.

The professional practice of behavior analysis is a domain of behavior analysis, the others being radical behaviorism, experimental analysis of behavior and applied behavior analysis. The practice of behavior analysis is the delivery of interventions to consumers that are guided by the principles of radical behaviorism and the research of both experimental and applied behavior analysis. Professional practice seeks to change specific behavior through the implementation of these principles. In many states, practicing behavior analysts hold a license, certificate, or registration. In other states, there are no laws governing their practice and, as such, the practice may be prohibited as falling under the practice definition of other mental health professionals. This is rapidly changing as behavior analysts are becoming more and more common.

The behavioral analysis of child development originates from John B. Watson's behaviorism.

Positive discipline (PD) is a discipline model used by some schools and in parenting that focuses on the positive points of behavior. It is based on the idea that there are no bad children, just good and bad behaviors. Practitioners of positive discipline believe that good behavior can be taught and reinforced while weaning bad behaviors without hurting the child verbally or physically. People engaging in positive discipline believe that they are not ignoring problems but dealing with the problem differently by helping the child learn how to handle situations more appropriately while remaining kind to the children themselves.

Prosocial behavior, or intent to benefit others, is a social behavior that "benefit[s] other people or society as a whole", "such as helping, sharing, donating, co-operating, and volunteering". Obeying the rules and conforming to socially accepted behaviors are also regarded as prosocial behaviors. These actions may be motivated by empathy and by concern about the welfare and rights of others, as well as for egoistic or practical concerns, such as one's social status or reputation, hope for direct or indirect reciprocity, or adherence to one's perceived system of fairness. It may also be motivated by altruism, though the existence of pure altruism is somewhat disputed, and some have argued that this falls into philosophical rather than psychological realm of debate. Evidence suggests that pro sociality is central to the well-being of social groups across a range of scales, including schools. Prosocial behavior in the classroom can have a significant impact on a student's motivation for learning and contributions to the classroom and larger community. In the workplace, prosocial behaviour can have a significant impact on team psychological safety, as well as positive indirect effects on employee's helping behaviors and task performance. Empathy is a strong motive in eliciting prosocial behavior, and has deep evolutionary roots.

Employee recognition is the timely, informal or formal acknowledgement of a person's behavior, effort, or business result that supports the organization's goals and values, and exceeds their superior's normal expectations. Recognition has been held to be a constructive response and a judgment made about a person's contribution, reflecting not just work performance but also personal dedication and engagement on a regular or ad hoc basis, and expressed formally or informally, individually or collectively, privately or publicly, and monetarily or non-monetarily.

References

References

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  44. 1 2 3 4 Ashforth, Blake E.; Lee, Raymond T. (July 1, 1990). "Defensive Behavior in Organizations: A Preliminary Model". Human Relations. 43 (7): 621–648. doi:10.1177/001872679004300702. ISSN   0018-7267. S2CID   145126717.
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