Biopsychosocial model

Last updated
The biopsychosocial model of health Biopsychosocial Model of Health 1.svg
The biopsychosocial model of health

Biopsychosocial models are a class of trans-disciplinary models which look at the interconnection between biology, psychology, and socio-environmental factors. These models specifically examine how these aspects play a role in a range of topics but mainly psychiatry, health and human development.  

Contents

The term is generally used to describe a model advocated by George L. Engel in 1977. The model builds upon the idea that "illness and health are the result of an interaction between biological, psychological, and social factors." [1] which according to Derick T. Wade and Peter W. Halligan, as of 2017, is generally accepted.  The idea behind the model was to express mental distress as a triggered response of a disease that a person is genetically vulnerable when stressful life events occur. In that sense, it is also known as vulnerability-stress model. [2] It is now referred to as a generalized model that interprets similar aspects, [3] and has become an alternative to the biomedical and/or psychological dominance of many health care systems. The biopsychosocial model has been growing in interest for researchers in healthcare and active medical professionals in the past decade. [4]

History

George L. Engel and Jon Romano of the University of Rochester in 1977, are widely credited with being the first to propose a biopsychosocial model. [5] However, it had been proposed 100 years earlier and by others. [6] Engel struggled with the then-prevailing biomedical approach to medicine as he strove for a more holistic approach by recognizing that each patient has their own thoughts, feelings, and history. [7] [6] In developing his model, Engel framed it for both illnesses and psychological problems.

The biopsychosocial model is not just one of many competing possibilities - another intelligently constructed explanation of health. Its emergence is best understood within a historical context. The biopsychosocial model's emergence in psychiatry was influenced by the credibility problem in psychiatry as a medical specialism that arose during wartime conditions.  

By the 20th century, psychiatry was still a relatively new field. In the Victorian era, psychiatry was faced with two key challenges: firstly, taking control of the asylum system from lay administrators and secondly, constructing a credible knowledge base for medical authority over mental illness. At the time, the solution to this was developing a rhetoric of justification for psychiatry which was that the brain is the root of insanity, and physicians are the guardians of mental health. This position both reflected and contributed to the rise of eugenics thought in western intellectual culture. However, this was challenged by the shellshock problem after World War I – there was a fundamental incompatibility between a eugenic view of lunacy and the sad reality of respectable men breaking down with predictable regularity in the war trenches. This led to the recognition of neurosis and acceptance of psychoanalysis in psychiatric discourse. A year after the end of the war, the British Psychoanalytical Society and the Medical Section of the British Psychological Society were both established, marking the start of a nuanced interplay between biological psychiatry and medical psychotherapy. The Tavistock Clinic played a significant role in bridging the gap between these approaches and favoured a unified psychosomatic approach. Under these conditions, the biopsychosocial model was set up to revolutionise our understanding of psychiatry and health. [8]

There are a number of key theorists that predate the biopsychosocial model. For example, Engel broadened medical thinking by re-proposing a separation of body and mind. The idea of mind–body dualism goes back at least to René Descartes, but was forgotten during the biomedical approach. Engel emphasized that the biomedical approach is flawed because the body alone does not contribute to illness. [9] Instead, the individual mind (psychological and social factors) play a significant role in how an illness is caused and how it is treated. Engel proposed a dialogue between the patient and the doctor in order to find the most effective treatment solution. [10]

The idea that there are several factors that may contribute to one's mental suffering is nothing new. [11] Past psychologists such as Urie Bronfenbrenner, popularized the belief that social factors play a role in developing illnesses and behaviors. Simply, Engel used Bronfenbrenner's research as a column of his biopsychosocial model and framed this model to display health at the center of social, psychological, and biological aspects.

Adolf Meyer's psychobiology model is considered the forerunner to the biopsychosocial model by many. Meyer emphasised understanding mental illness in the context of a patient's personal history over diagnostic categories. [12] Meyer laid down the groundwork for understanding the interplay of psychology and biology but tended to view these as separate entities that interacted. Engel's model represents a broader and more integrated approach that considers biological, psychological, and social factors as interconnected elements. [8]

However, Roy Grinker actually coined the term 'biopsychosocial' long before Engel (1954 vs 1977). [13] The difference between the two researchers is that Grinker sought to highlight biological aspects of mental health. Engel instead emphasised psychosocial aspects of general health.

After publication, the biopsychosocial model was adopted by the World Health Organization (WHO) in 2002 as a basis for the International Classification of Function (ICF). [14] However, The WHO definition of health adopted in 1948 clearly implied a broad socio-medical perspective. [15]

Patient Populations

The patients that fall under the biopsychosocial model may not fall under the biomedical model, as the biopsychosocial model considers factors that may not physiologically manifest in a person. [16] By broadening the scope of patients that are encompassed in healthcare, the biopsychosocial model incorporates the idea of non-biological factors such as socioeconomic status, race, and sex to be important components to one's health along with the common biological indicators. Until recent years, the conventional method for handling health and illness centered around the medical or biological model, concentrating solely on medical interventions to address an individual's health issues. [17] While this approach was once deemed sufficient, contemporary research within psychology and the social sciences has cast doubt on its effectiveness. Scholars are now working on developing a broader health model, incorporating insights from psychology and social sciences, with the intention of improving its practical application in clinical settings. [17]

Patient populations that the biopsychosocial model accounts for that may not be considered under the biomedical model include those affected by health inequities and those at risk of infirmity.  

Health inequities, often rooted in social determinants of health, highlight the disparities in health outcomes experienced by different populations. [18] The biopsychosocial model, which considers biological, psychological, and social factors in understanding health, provides a framework for comprehending how these disparities arise and persist, which makes it a model of interest in targeting health inequities. [19] A holistic biopsychosocial model approach considers additional elements influencing the perceived necessity for healthcare and the focus on health-related matters: Information, Beliefs, and Conduct. Based on the model's dependence on perception, it has been considered imperative to actively engage the individuals or communities whose requirements are being addressed, [20] regardless of whether the focus is on their health, education, employment, housing, or any other needs. A key term in the biopsychosocial model is "syndemic" which refers to a set of health problem factors that interact synergistically with each other ranging from socioeconomic status to genetics. [20]

Preventative medicine is a large component of biopsychosocial model which considers preventative measures to stop patients from obtaining infirmity in the first place. [21] By combatting preventable chronic diseases which make up a majority of deaths in patients of the US, the BPS model has been considered a potential tool to improve patient outcomes. [22]  

Biopsychosocial model vs. Biomedical model

The biomedical and biopsychosocial models offer distinct perspectives on understanding and addressing health and illness. The biomedical model, historically prevalent, takes a reductionist approach by focusing on biological factors and treating diseases through medical interventions. [23] In contrast, the biopsychosocial model adopts a holistic viewpoint, acknowledging the complex interplay of biological, psychological, and social factors in shaping health and illness. [23] Unlike the biomedical model, which sees diseases as isolated physical abnormalities, the biopsychosocial model views them as outcomes of dynamic interactions among various dimensions. Treatment under the biopsychosocial model is comprehensive, involving medical, psychological, and social interventions to address overall well-being. [24] This model emphasizes the interconnectedness of these dimensions, recognizing their mutual influence on an individual's health. [24]

Institutional Recognition of the Biopsychosocial model

In the last decade, there has been a rising interest among healthcare researchers and practicing medical professionals in the biopsychosocial model. [4] However, despite the rising interest, medical schools have had limited use of the model in their curriculums relative to the increasing literature about the model. [25]

Current status of the model

The biopsychosocial model is still widely used as both a philosophy of clinical care and a practical clinical guide useful for broadening the scope of a clinician's gaze. [26] Borrell-Carrió and colleagues reviewed Engel's model 25 years on. [26] They proposed the model had evolved into a biopsychosocial and relationship-centered framework for physicians. They proposed three clarifications to the model, and identified seven established principles.

  1. Self-awareness.
  2. Active cultivation of trust.
  3. An emotional style characterized by empathic curiosity.
  4. Self-calibration as a way to reduce bias.
  5. Educating the emotions to assist with diagnosis and forming therapeutic relationships.
  6. Using informed intuition.
  7. Communicating clinical evidence to foster dialogue, not just the mechanical application of protocol.

Gatchel and colleagues argued in 2007 the biopsychosocial model is the most widely accepted as the most heuristic approach to understanding and treating chronic pain. [27]

Relevant theories and theorists

Other theorists and researchers are using the term biopsychosocial, or sometimes bio-psycho-social to distinguish Engel's model. [3]

Lumley and colleagues used a non-Engel model to conduct a biopsychosocial assessment of the relationship between and pain and emotion. [28] Zucker and Gomberg used a non-Engel biopsychosocial perspective to assess the etiology of alcoholism in 1986. [29]

Crittenden considers the Dynamic-Maturational Model of Attachment and Adaptation (DMM), to be a biopsychosocial model. [3] [30] It incorporates many disciplines to understand human development and information processing. [31]

Kozlowska's Functional Somatic Symptoms model uses a biopsychosocial approach to understand somatic symptoms. [32] [33] Siegel's Interpersonal Neurobiology (IPNB) model is similar, although, perhaps to distinguish IPNB from Engel's model, he describes how the brain, mind, and relationships are part of one reality rather three separate elements. [34] Most trauma informed care models are biopsychosocial models. [35] [36]

Biopsychosocial research

Wickrama and colleagues have conducted several biopsychosocial-based studies examining marital dynamics. In a longitudinal study of women divorced midlife they found that divorce contributed to an adverse biopsychosocial process for the women. [37] In another study of enduring marriages, they looked to see if hostile marital interactions in the early middle years could wear down couples regulator systems through greater psychological distress, more health-risk behaviors, and a higher body mass index (BMI). Their findings confirmed negative outcomes and increased vulnerability to later physical health problems for both husbands and wives. [38]

Kovacs and colleagues meta-study examined the biopsychosocial experiences of adults with congenital heart disease. [39] Zhang and colleagues used a biopsychosocial approach to examine parents own physiological response when facing children's negative emotions, and how it related to parents’ ability to engage in sensitive and supportive behaviors. [40] They found parents’ physiological regulatory functioning was an important factor in shaping parenting behaviors directed toward children's emotions.

A biopsychosocial approach was used to assess race and ethnic differences in aging and to develop the Michigan Cognitive Aging Project. [41] Banerjee and colleagues used a biopsychosocial narrative to describe the dual pandemic of suicide and COVID-19. [42]

Potential applications

When Engel first proposed the biopsychosocial model it was for the purpose of better understanding health and illness. While this application still holds true the model is relevant to topics such as health, medicine, and development. Firstly, as proposed by Engel, it helps physicians better understand their whole patient. Considering not only physiological and medical aspects but also psychological and sociological well-being. [26] Furthermore, this model is closely tied to health psychology. Health psychology examines the reciprocal influences of biology, psychology, behavioral, and social factors on health and illness.

One application of the biopsychosocial model within health and medicine relates to pain, such that several factors outside an individual's health may affect their perception of pain. For example, a 2019 study linked genetic and biopsychosocial factors to increased post-operative shoulder pain. [43] Future studies are needed to model and further explore the relationship between biopsychosocial factors and pain. [44]

The developmental applications of this model are equally relevant. One particular advantage of applying the biopsychosocial model to developmental psychology is that it allows for an intersection within the nature versus nurture debate. This model provides developmental psychologists a theoretical basis for the interplay of both hereditary and psychosocial factors on an individual's development. [26]

In gender

Within the framework of the biopsychosocial model, gender is regarded by some as a complex and nuanced construct, shaped by the intricate interplay of social, psychological, and biological factors. [45] This perspective, as echoed by the Gender Spectrum Organization, defines gender as the multifaceted interrelationship between three key dimensions: body, identity, and social gender. [46] In essence, this characterization aligns with the fundamental principles of the biopsychosocial model, emphasizing the need to consider not only biological determinants but also the profound influences of psychological and social contexts on the formation of gender. [45] [47]

According to the insights of Alex Iantaffi and Meg-John Barker, the biopsychosocial model provides a comprehensive framework to understand the complexities of gender. [45] They illustrate that biological, psychological, and social factors are not isolated entities but rather intricately intertwined elements that continually interact and shape one another. In this dynamic process, a person's gender identity emerges as the result of a complex interplay between their biological characteristics, psychological experiences, and social interactions. [45] This holistic perspective is in harmony with the biopsychosocial model's approach, which acknowledges the inseparable connection between these various dimensions in influencing an individual's overall well-being.

In essence, within the biopsychosocial paradigm, gender is not merely a product of biological determinants; rather, it is a dynamic and interconnected aspect of human identity. [1] [45] This perspective urges a more nuanced understanding, encouraging researchers and medical professionals to consider the intricate interplay of social, psychological, and biological factors when exploring and addressing the complexities of gender. [1]

Criticisms

There have been a number of criticisms of Engel's biopsychosocial model. [48] [49] [50] Benning summarized the arguments against the model including that it lacked philosophical coherence, was insensitive to patients' subjective experience, was unfaithful to the general systems theory that Engel claimed it be rooted in, and that it engendered an undisciplined eclecticism that provides no safeguards against either the dominance or the under-representation of any one of the three domains of bio, psycho, or social. [51]

Psychiatrist Hamid Tavakoli argues that Engel's biopsychosocial model should be avoided because it unintentionally promotes an artificial distinction between biology and psychology, and merely causes confusion in psychiatric assessments and training programs, and that ultimately it has not helped the cause of trying to de-stigmatize mental health. [52] The perspectives model does not make that arbitrary distinction. [53]

A number of these criticisms have been addressed over recent years. For example, the biopsychosocial pathways model describes how it is possible to conceptually separate, define, and measure biological, psychological, and social factors, and thereby seek detailed interrelationships among these factors. [54]

While Engel's call to arms for a biopsychosocial model has been taken up in several healthcare fields and developed in related models, it has not been adopted in acute medical and surgical domains, as of 2017. [6]

Related Research Articles

A mental disorder, also referred to as a mental illness, a mental health condition, or a psychiatric disability, is a behavioral or mental pattern that causes significant distress or impairment of personal functioning. A mental disorder is also characterized by a clinically significant disturbance in an individual's cognition, emotional regulation, or behavior, often in a social context. Such disturbances may occur as single episodes, may be persistent, or may be relapsing–remitting. There are many different types of mental disorders, with signs and symptoms that vary widely between specific disorders. A mental disorder is one aspect of mental health.

Medical psychology or medico-psychology is the application of psychological principles to the practice of medicine, sometimes using drugs for both physical and mental disorders.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Causes of mental disorders</span> Etiology of psychopathology

A mental disorder is an impairment of the mind disrupting normal thinking, feeling, mood, behavior, or social interactions, and accompanied by significant distress or dysfunction. The causes of mental disorders are very complex and vary depending on the particular disorder and the individual. Although the causes of most mental disorders are not fully understood, researchers have identified a variety of biological, psychological, and environmental factors that can contribute to the development or progression of mental disorders. Most mental disorders result in a combination of several different factors rather than just a single factor.

Psychosomatic medicine is an interdisciplinary medical field exploring the relationships among social, psychological, behavioral factors on bodily processes and quality of life in humans and animals.

"these disease are derived from variables such as genetics, biological, socio-cultural, systematic, and biopsychosocial factors"

Richard Bentall is a Professor of Clinical Psychology at the University of Sheffield in the UK.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Depression (mood)</span> State of low mood and aversion to activity

Depression is a mental state of low mood and aversion to activity. It affects more than 280 million people of all ages. Depression affects a person's thoughts, behavior, feelings, and sense of well-being. Depressed people often experience loss of motivation or interest in, or reduced pleasure or joy from, experiences that would normally bring them pleasure or joy.

Health psychology is the study of psychological and behavioral processes in health, illness, and healthcare. The discipline is concerned with understanding how psychological, behavioral, and cultural factors contribute to physical health and illness. Psychological factors can affect health directly. For example, chronically occurring environmental stressors affecting the hypothalamic–pituitary–adrenal axis, cumulatively, can harm health. Behavioral factors can also affect a person's health. For example, certain behaviors can, over time, harm or enhance health. Health psychologists take a biopsychosocial approach. In other words, health psychologists understand health to be the product not only of biological processes but also of psychological, behavioral, and social processes.

Biological psychiatry or biopsychiatry is an approach to psychiatry that aims to understand mental disorder in terms of the biological function of the nervous system. It is interdisciplinary in its approach and draws on sciences such as neuroscience, psychopharmacology, biochemistry, genetics, epigenetics and physiology to investigate the biological bases of behavior and psychopathology. Biopsychiatry is the branch of medicine which deals with the study of the biological function of the nervous system in mental disorders.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Adolf Meyer (psychiatrist)</span> Swiss-American psychiatrist (1866–1950)

Adolf Meyer was a Swiss-born psychiatrist who rose to prominence as the first psychiatrist-in-chief of the Johns Hopkins Hospital (1910–1941). He was president of the American Psychiatric Association in 1927–28 and was one of the most influential figures in psychiatry in the first half of the twentieth century. His focus on collecting detailed case histories on patients was one of the most prominent of his contributions. He oversaw the building and development of the Henry Phipps Psychiatric Clinic at Johns Hopkins Hospital, opened in April 1913, making sure it was suitable for scientific research, training and treatment. Meyer's work at the Phipps Clinic is possibly the most significant aspect of his career.

Behavioral medicine is concerned with the integration of knowledge in the biological, behavioral, psychological, and social sciences relevant to health and illness. These sciences include epidemiology, anthropology, sociology, psychology, physiology, pharmacology, nutrition, neuroanatomy, endocrinology, and immunology. The term is often used interchangeably, but incorrectly, with health psychology. The practice of behavioral medicine encompasses health psychology, but also includes applied psychophysiological therapies such as biofeedback, hypnosis, and bio-behavioral therapy of physical disorders, aspects of occupational therapy, rehabilitation medicine, and physiatry, as well as preventive medicine. In contrast, health psychology represents a stronger emphasis specifically on psychology's role in both behavioral medicine and behavioral health.

Medical model is the term coined by psychiatrist R. D. Laing in his The Politics of the Family and Other Essays (1971), for the "set of procedures in which all doctors are trained". It includes complaint, history, physical examination, ancillary tests if needed, diagnosis, treatment, and prognosis with and without treatment.

The biopsychiatry controversy is a dispute over which viewpoint should predominate and form a basis of psychiatric theory and practice. The debate is a criticism of a claimed strict biological view of psychiatric thinking. Its critics include disparate groups such as the antipsychiatry movement and some academics.

Psycho-oncology is an interdisciplinary field at the intersection of physical, psychological, social, and behavioral aspects of the cancer experience for both patients and caregivers. Also known as psychiatric oncology or psychosocial oncology, researchers and practitioners in the field are concerned with aspects of individuals' experience with cancer beyond medical treatment, and across the cancer trajectory, including at diagnosis, during treatment, transitioning to and throughout survivorship, and approaching the end-of-life. Founded by Jimmie Holland in 1977 via the incorporation of a psychiatric service within the Memorial Sloan Kettering Cancer Center in New York, the field has expanded drastically since and is now universally recognized as an integral component of quality cancer care. Cancer centers in major academic medical centers across the country now uniformly incorporate a psycho-oncology service into their clinical care, and provide infrastructure to support research efforts to advance knowledge in the field.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Social medicine</span> Understanding how culture and larger groups of people shape health procedures

Social medicine is an interdisciplinary field that focuses on the profound interplay between socio-economic factors and individual health outcomes. Rooted in the challenges of the Industrial Revolution, it seeks to:

  1. Understand how specific social, economic, and environmental conditions directly impact health, disease, and the delivery of medical care.
  2. Promote conditions and interventions that address these determinants, aiming for a healthier and more equitable society.

George Libman Engel was an American internist and psychiatrist. He spent most of his career at the University of Rochester Medical Center in Rochester, New York. He is best known for his formulation of the biopsychosocial model, a general theory of illness and healing.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Psychiatry</span> Branch of medicine devoted to mental disorders

Psychiatry is the medical specialty devoted to the diagnosis, prevention, and treatment of deleterious mental conditions. These include various matters related to mood, behaviour, cognition, perceptions, and emotions.

Functional disorders are a group of recognisable medical conditions which are due to changes to the functioning of the systems of the body rather than due to a disease affecting the structure of the body.

Pediatric psychology is a multidisciplinary field of both scientific research and clinical practice which attempts to address the psychological aspects of illness, injury, and the promotion of health behaviors in children, adolescents, and families in a pediatric health setting. Psychological issues are addressed in a developmental framework and emphasize the dynamic relationships which exist between children, their families, and the health delivery system as a whole.

Laurence J. Kirmayer is a Canadian psychiatrist and internationally recognized expert in culture and mental health. He is Distinguished James McGill Professor and Director of the Division of Social and Transcultural Psychiatry, Department of Psychiatry, McGill University. He is a Fellow of the Canadian Academy of Health Sciences and the Royal Society of Canada

References

  1. 1 2 3 Wade, Derick T; Halligan, Peter W (August 2017). "The biopsychosocial model of illness: a model whose time has come". Clinical Rehabilitation. 31 (8): 995–1004. doi: 10.1177/0269215517709890 . ISSN   0269-2155. PMID   28730890.
  2. ↑ Wong, Daniel Fu Keung (2014-04-04). Clinical Case Management for People with Mental Illness: A Biopsychosocial Vulnerability-Stress Model. Routledge. ISBN   978-1-317-82498-5.
  3. 1 2 3 Crittenden PM, Landini A, Spieker SJ (2021). "Staying alive: A 21st century agenda for mental health, child protection and forensic services". Human Systems. 1: 29–51. doi:10.1177/26344041211007831. ISSN   2634-4041. S2CID   235486608.
  4. 1 2 Nakao, Mutsuhiro; Komaki, Gen; Yoshiuchi, Kazuhiro; Deter, Hans-Christian; Fukudo, Shin (2020-12-08). "Biopsychosocial medicine research trends: connecting clinical medicine, psychology, and public health". BioPsychoSocial Medicine. 14 (1): 30. doi: 10.1186/s13030-020-00204-9 . ISSN   1751-0759. PMC   7722433 . PMID   33292438.
  5. ↑ "The Biopsychosocial Model Approach" (PDF). University of Rochester Medical Center. Rochester, NY: Rochester University. Retrieved 18 April 2019.
  6. 1 2 3 Wade DT, Halligan PW (August 2017). "The biopsychosocial model of illness: a model whose time has come". Clinical Rehabilitation. 31 (8): 995–1004. doi: 10.1177/0269215517709890 . PMID   28730890. S2CID   206486211.
  7. ↑ Engel GL (April 1977). "The need for a new medical model: a challenge for biomedicine". Science. 196 (4286): 129–136. Bibcode:1977Sci...196..129E. doi:10.1126/science.847460. PMID   847460.
  8. 1 2 Pilgrim, David (January 2002). "The biopsychosocial model in Anglo-American psychiatry: Past, present and future?". Journal of Mental Health. 11 (6): 585–594. doi:10.1080/09638230020023930. ISSN   0963-8237.
  9. ↑ Dombeck M (17 March 2019). "The Bio-Psycho-Social Model". MentalHelp.Net. American Addiction Centers. Retrieved 18 April 2019.
  10. ↑ Gatchel RJ, Haggard R (2014). "Biopsychosocial Prescreening for Spinal Cord and Peripheral Nerve Stimulation Devices". Practical Management of Pain. pp. 933–938.e2. doi:10.1016/B978-0-323-08340-9.00068-2. ISBN   978-0-323-08340-9.
  11. ↑ Vance, Alasdair; Winther, Jo (October 2021). "Parent- and child-reported anxiety disorders differentiating major depressive disorder and dysthymic disorder in children and adolescents". Australasian Psychiatry. 29 (5): 488–492. doi:10.1177/1039856220960367. ISSN   1039-8562. PMID   32961097.
  12. ↑ Wallace, Edwin R. IV (2007). "Adolph Meyer's Psychobiology in Historical Context, and Its Relationship to George Engel's Biopsychosocial Model". Philosophy, Psychiatry, & Psychology. 14 (4): 347–353. doi:10.1353/ppp.0.0144. ISSN   1086-3303.
  13. ↑ Ghaemi, S. Nassir (July 2009). "The rise and fall of the biopsychosocial model". British Journal of Psychiatry. 195 (1): 3–4. doi:10.1192/bjp.bp.109.063859. ISSN   0007-1250.
  14. ↑ Hopwood V (2010). "Current context: neurological rehabilitation and neurological physiotherapy". Acupuncture in Neurological Conditions . Churchhill Livingstone. pp.  39–51. doi:10.1016/B978-0-7020-3020-8.00003-5. ISBN   978-0-7020-3020-8.
  15. ↑ WHO (1948). Constitution of the World Health Organization. World Health Organization.
  16. ↑ "Biopsychosocial Model - an overview | ScienceDirect Topics". www.sciencedirect.com. Retrieved 2023-12-07.
  17. 1 2 Inerney, Shane J. Mc (2023-12-06). "Introducing the Biopsychosocial Model for good medicine and good doctors".{{cite journal}}: Cite journal requires |journal= (help)
  18. ↑ "Health Disparities | DASH | CDC". www.cdc.gov. 2023-05-26. Retrieved 2023-12-07.
  19. ↑ Wade, Derick T; Halligan, Peter W (August 2017). "The biopsychosocial model of illness: a model whose time has come". Clinical Rehabilitation. 31 (8): 995–1004. doi: 10.1177/0269215517709890 . ISSN   0269-2155. PMID   28730890. S2CID   206486211.
  20. 1 2 King, Denae W.; Hurd, Thelma C.; Hajek, Richard A.; Jones, Lovell A. (2009). "Using a Biopsychosocial Approach to Address Health Disparities—One Person's Vision". Journal of Cancer Education. 24 (Suppl 2): S26–S32. doi:10.1080/08858190903412091. ISSN   0885-8195. PMC   2883460 . PMID   20024822.
  21. ↑ White, Peter, ed. (2005). "Biopsychosocial Medicine (DRAFT)". Oxford University Press. doi:10.1093/med:psych/9780198530343.001.0001. ISBN   978-0-19-853034-3 . Retrieved 2023-12-07.
  22. ↑ Wade, Derick T.; Halligan, Peter W. (August 2017). "The biopsychosocial model of illness: a model whose time has come". Clinical Rehabilitation. 31 (8): 995–1004. doi: 10.1177/0269215517709890 . ISSN   1477-0873. PMID   28730890. S2CID   206486211.
  23. 1 2 Kusnanto, Hari; Agustian, Dwi; Hilmanto, Dany (May 2018). "Biopsychosocial model of illnesses in primary care: A hermeneutic literature review". Journal of Family Medicine and Primary Care. 7 (3): 497–500. doi: 10.4103/jfmpc.jfmpc_145_17 . PMC   6069638 . PMID   30112296.
  24. 1 2 Newman, Marc C.; Lawless, John J.; Gelo, Florence; Dmin, Null (2007-05-01). "Family-Oriented Patient Care". American Family Physician. 75 (9): 1306–1310. PMID   17508523.
  25. ↑ Jaini, Paresh Atu; Lee, Jenny Seung-Hyun (September 2015). "A Review of 21st Century Utility of a Biopsychosocial Model in United States Medical School Education". Journal of Lifestyle Medicine. 5 (2): 49–59. doi:10.15280/jlm.2015.5.2.49. ISSN   2234-8549. PMC   4711959 . PMID   26770891.
  26. 1 2 3 4 Borrell-Carrió F, Suchman AL, Epstein RM (Nov 2004). "The biopsychosocial model 25 years later: principles, practice, and scientific inquiry". Annals of Family Medicine. 2 (6): 576–582. doi:10.1370/afm.245. PMC   1466742 . PMID   15576544.
  27. ↑ Gatchel RJ, Peng YB, Peters ML, Fuchs PN, Turk DC (July 2007). "The biopsychosocial approach to chronic pain: scientific advances and future directions" (PDF). Psychological Bulletin. 133 (4): 581–624. doi:10.1037/0033-2909.133.4.581. PMID   17592957.
  28. ↑ Lumley MA, Cohen JL, Borszcz GS, Cano A, Radcliffe AM, Porter LS, et al. (September 2011). "Pain and emotion: a biopsychosocial review of recent research". Journal of Clinical Psychology. 67 (9): 942–968. doi:10.1002/jclp.20816. PMC   3152687 . PMID   21647882.
  29. ↑ Zucker RA, Gomberg ES (July 1986). "Etiology of alcoholism reconsidered. The case for a biopsychosocial process". The American Psychologist. 41 (7): 783–793. doi:10.1037/0003-066X.41.7.783. PMID   3527004.
  30. ↑ Crittenden PM (2016). Raising parents : attachment, representation, and treatment (2nd ed.). London. ISBN   978-0-415-50829-2. OCLC   893646939.{{cite book}}: CS1 maint: location missing publisher (link)
  31. ↑ Crittenden PM (2011). Assessing adult attachment : a dynamic-maturational approach to discourse analysis. Andrea Landini. New York: W.W Norton & Co. ISBN   978-0-393-70667-3. OCLC   667877268.
  32. ↑ Kozlowska K, Scher S, Helgeland H (2020). "The Skeletomotor System and Functional Somatic Symptoms". Functional Somatic Symptoms in Children and Adolescents. Palgrave Texts in Counselling and Psychotherapy. Cham: Springer International Publishing. pp. 137–160. doi:10.1007/978-3-030-46184-3_7. ISBN   978-3-030-46183-6. S2CID   226613256.
  33. ↑ Kozlowska K, Scher S, Helgeland H (2020). Functional Somatic Symptoms in Children and Adolescents: A Stress-System Approach to Assessment and Treatment. Palgrave Texts in Counselling and Psychotherapy. Cham: Springer International Publishing. doi:10.1007/978-3-030-46184-3. ISBN   978-3-030-46183-6. S2CID   226614004.
  34. ↑ Siegel DJ (2012). The developing mind: how relationships and the brain interact to shape who we are (3rd ed.). New York: London: The Guilford Press. p. 59. ISBN   978-1-4625-4275-8. OCLC   1141039476.
  35. ↑ Huang LN, Flatow R, Biggs T, Afayee S, Smith K, Clark T, Blake M (2014). "SAMHSA's Concept of Trauma and Guidance for a Trauma-Informed Approach" (PDF). Substance Abuse and Mental Health Services Administration (SAMHSA).
  36. ↑ Sweeney A, Filson B, Kennedy A, Collinson L, Gillard S (September 2018). "A paradigm shift: relationships in trauma-informed mental health services". BJPsych Advances. 24 (5): 319–333. doi:10.1192/bja.2018.29. PMC   6088388 . PMID   30174829.
  37. ↑ Wickrama KA, Klopack ET, O'Neal CW (2022). "Stressful family contexts and health in divorced and married mothers: Biopsychosocial process". Journal of Social and Personal Relationships. 39 (11): 3436–3457. doi:10.1177/02654075221098627. ISSN   0265-4075. S2CID   245279287.
  38. ↑ Lee S, Wickrama KK, Futris TG, Simmons LA, Mancini JA, Lorenz FO (August 2021). "The biopsychosocial associations between marital hostility and physical health of middle-aged couples". Journal of Family Psychology. 35 (5): 649–659. doi: 10.1037/fam0000827 . PMID   33661683. S2CID   232123555.
  39. ↑ Kovacs AH, Sears SF, Saidi AS (August 2005). "Biopsychosocial experiences of adults with congenital heart disease: review of the literature". American Heart Journal. 150 (2): 193–201. doi:10.1016/j.ahj.2004.08.025. PMID   16086917. S2CID   23459854.
  40. ↑ Zhang X, Han ZR, Gatzke-Kopp LM (August 2021). "A biopsychosocial approach to emotion-related parenting: Physiological responses to child frustration among urban Chinese parents". Journal of Family Psychology. 35 (5): 639–648. doi:10.1037/fam0000824. PMID   33705175. S2CID   232209248.
  41. ↑ Zahodne LB (December 2021). "Biopsychosocial pathways in dementia inequalities: Introduction to the Michigan Cognitive Aging Project". The American Psychologist. 76 (9): 1470–1481. doi:10.1037/amp0000936. PMC   9205325 . PMID   35266748.
  42. ↑ Banerjee D, Kosagisharaf JR, Sathyanarayana Rao TS (January 2021). "'The dual pandemic' of suicide and COVID-19: A biopsychosocial narrative of risks and prevention". Psychiatry Research. 295 (Jan): 113577. doi:10.1016/j.psychres.2020.113577. PMC   7672361 . PMID   33229123.
  43. ↑ Simon CB, Valencia C, Coronado RA, Wu SS, Li Z, Dai Y, et al. (Dec 2019). "Biopsychosocial Influences on Shoulder Pain: Analyzing the Temporal Ordering of Postoperative Recovery". The Journal of Pain. 21 (7–8): 808–819. doi: 10.1016/j.jpain.2019.11.008 . PMC   7321871 . PMID   31891763.
  44. ↑ Miaskowski C, Blyth F, Nicosia F, Haan M, Keefe F, Smith A, Ritchie C (September 2020). "A Biopsychosocial Model of Chronic Pain for Older Adults". Pain Medicine. 21 (9): 1793–1805. doi:10.1093/pm/pnz329. PMID   31846035.
  45. 1 2 3 4 5 Iantaffi, Alex (2017). How to Understand Your Gender: A Practical Guide for Exploring Who You Are. Jessica Kingsley Publishers. ISBN   9781785927461.
  46. ↑ Prismic. "Understanding Gender". Gender Spectrum. Retrieved 2023-03-04.
  47. ↑ Knudson-Martin, Carmen; Mahoney, Anne Rankin (March 2009). "Introduction to the Special Section-Gendered Power in Cultural Contexts: Capturing the Lived Experience of Couples". Family Process. 48 (1): 5–8. doi:10.1111/j.1545-5300.2009.01263.x. PMID   19378641.
  48. ↑ Benning TB (May 2015). "Limitations of the biopsychosocial model in psychiatry". Advances in Medical Education and Practice. 6: 347–352. doi: 10.2147/AMEP.S82937 . PMC   4427076 . PMID   25999775.
  49. ↑ McLaren N (February 1998). "A critical review of the biopsychosocial model". The Australian and New Zealand Journal of Psychiatry. 32 (1): 86–92. doi:10.3109/00048679809062712. PMID   9565189. S2CID   12321002.
  50. ↑ Ghaemi SN (July 2009). "The rise and fall of the biopsychosocial model". The British Journal of Psychiatry. 195 (1): 3–4. doi: 10.1192/bjp.bp.109.063859 . PMID   19567886.
  51. ↑ Lehman BJ, David DM, Gruber JA (August 2017). "Rethinking the biopsychosocial model of health: Understanding health as a dynamic system". Social and Personality Psychology Compass. 11 (8). e12328. doi: 10.1111/spc3.12328 .
  52. ↑ Tavakoli HR (February 2009). "A closer evaluation of current methods in psychiatric assessments: a challenge for the biopsychosocial model". Psychiatry. 6 (2): 25–30. PMC   2719450 . PMID   19724745.
  53. ↑ McHugh PR (1998). The perspectives of psychiatry (2nd ed.). Baltimore: Johns Hopkins University Press. ISBN   978-0801860461.
  54. ↑ Karunamuni N, Imayama I, Goonetilleke D (March 2021). "Pathways to well-being: Untangling the causal relationships among biopsychosocial variables". Social Science & Medicine. 272: 112846. doi:10.1016/j.socscimed.2020.112846. PMID   32089388. S2CID   211262159.
This page is based on this Wikipedia article
Text is available under the CC BY-SA 4.0 license; additional terms may apply.
Images, videos and audio are available under their respective licenses.