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Gyromitrin is a toxin and carcinogen present in several members of the fungal genus Gyromitra, like G. esculenta. Its formula is C4H8N2O. It is unstable and is easily hydrolyzed to the toxic compound monomethylhydrazine CH3NHNH2. Monomethylhydrazine acts on the central nervous system and interferes with the normal use and function of vitamin B6. Poisoning results in nausea, stomach cramps, and diarrhea, while severe poisoning can result in convulsions, jaundice, or even coma or death. Exposure to monomethylhydrazine has been shown to be carcinogenic in small mammals.
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Volkensin is a eukaryotic ribosome-inactivating protein found in the Adenia volkensii plant. It is a glycoprotein with two subunits A and B. A subunit is linked to B subunit with disulfide bridges and non-covalent bonds. B subunit is responsible for binding to the galactosyl-terminated receptors on the cell membrane that allows the entry the A subunit of the toxin into the cell, which performs the inhibitory function. Volkensin is a galactose specific lectin that can inhibit protein synthesis in whole cells and in cell-free lysates. This protein can be included into the category of risin like toxins and it resembles modeccin, the toxin of Adenia digitata. Although very similar in composition, volkensin contains more cysteine residues and more than twice as much sugar than modeccin, due to high content of galactose and mannose. In addition, volkensin is able to inhibit protein synthesis at concentrations 10 times lower than required for modeccin. From gene sequencing analysis, volkensin was found to be coded by 1569-bp ORF, that is 523 amino acid residues without introns. The internal linker sequence is 45 bp. The active site of the A subunit contains Ser203, a novel residue that is conserved in all ribosome inactivating proteins.
Modeccin is a toxic lectin, a group of glycoproteins capable of binding specifically to sugar moieties. Different toxic lectins are present in seeds of different origin. Modeccin is found in the roots of the African plant Adenia digitata. These roots are often mistaken for edible roots, which has led to some cases of intoxication. Sometimes the fruit is eaten, or a root extract is drunk as a manner of suicide.
References
- ↑ Gachet, C.; Ennamany, R.; Kretz, O.; Ohlmann, P.; Krause, C.; Creppy, E. E.; Dirheimer, G.; Cazenave, J. P. (January 1996). "Bolesatine induces agglutination of rat platelets and human erythrocytes and platelets in vitro". Human & Experimental Toxicology. 15 (1): 26–29. Bibcode:1996HETox..15...26G. doi:10.1177/096032719601500105. ISSN 0960-3271. PMID 8845205. S2CID 23915071.
- ↑ Kretz, Olivier; Creppy, Edmond Ekue; Dirheimer, Guy (January 1991). "Disposition of the toxic protein, bolesatine, in rats: its resistance to proteolytic enzymes". Xenobiotica. 21 (1): 65–73. doi:10.3109/00498259109039451. PMID 2003368.
- ↑ Kretz, Olivier; Creppy, Edmond Ekue; Dirheimer, Guy (February 1991). "Characterization of bolesatine, a toxic protein from the mushroom Boletus satanas Lenz and it's[sic] effects on kidney cells". Toxicology. 66 (2): 213–24. Bibcode:1991Toxgy..66..213K. doi:10.1016/0300-483x(91)90220-u. PMID 1707561.
- ↑ Ennamany, R.; Lavergne, J.P.; Reboud, J.P.; Dirheimer, G.; Creppy, E.E. (June 1995). "Mode of action of bolesatine, a cytotoxic glycoprotein from Boletus satanas Lenz. Mechanistic approaches". Toxicology. 100 (1–3): 51–55. Bibcode:1995Toxgy.100...51E. doi:10.1016/0300-483x(95)03058-n. ISSN 0300-483X. PMID 7624882.
- ↑ Licastro, Frederico; Morini, Maria Cristina; Kretz, Olivier; Dirheimer, Guy; Creppy, Edmond Ekue; Stirpe, Fiorenzo (May 1993). "Mitogenic activity and immunological properties of bolesatine, a lectin isolated from the mushroom Boletus satanas Lenz". International Journal of Biochemistry. 25 (5): 789–792. doi:10.1016/0020-711x(93)90366-m. PMID 8349019.
- ↑ Ennamany, R.; Marzetto, S.; Saboureau, D.; Creppy, E. E. (1995-12-01). "Lipid peroxidation induced by bolesatine, a toxin ofBoletus satanas: Implication in m5dC variation in Vero cells related to inhibition of cell growth". Cell Biology and Toxicology. 11 (6): 347–354. doi:10.1007/BF01305906. ISSN 1573-6822. PMID 8788210. S2CID 20541517.
- ↑ Ennamany, R.; Bingen, A.; Creppy, E. E.; Kretz, O.; Gut, J. P.; Dubuisson, L.; Balabaud, C.; Bioulac Sage, P.; Kirn, A. (November 1998). "Aspirin and heparin prevent hepatic blood stasis and thrombosis induced by the toxic glycoprotein Bolesatine in mice". Human & Experimental Toxicology. 17 (11): 620–624. Bibcode:1998HETox..17..620E. doi:10.1177/096032719801701106. ISSN 0960-3271. PMID 9865419. S2CID 43529948.
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