Buscarello de Ghizolfi, also known as Buscarel of Gisolfe, was a European who settled in Persia in the 13th century while it was part of the Mongol Ilkhanate. He was a Mongol ambassador to Europe from 1289 to 1305, serving the Mongol rulers Arghun, Ghazan and then Oljeitu. The goal of the communications was to form a Franco-Mongol alliance between the Mongols and the Europeans against the Muslims, but despite many back-and-forth communications, the attempts were never successful.
Little is known of Buscarello except for his work as an ambassador, and that he was a member of the powerful Ghisolfi family. The first mention of him is in 1274, in relation to the arming of a galley. The next is from 1279, which records that he was in the city of Ayas in Cilician Armenia, at the time a vassal state of the Mongol Empire. He then entered the service of the Mongol ruler Arghun, becoming Officer of his guard, with the title of Qortchi ("Quiver carrier"). [1] [2]
Buscarello had a son, Argone de Ghizolfi, whom he named "Arghun" after his patron. [1] [3]
In 1289, Arghun sent a mission to Europe, with Buscarel as ambassador. Other adventurers, such as Tommaso Ugi di Siena and Isol the Pisan, are known to have played similar roles at the Mongol court, as hundreds of Western adventurers entered into the service of Mongol rulers. [4] Buscarel's journey was the third attempt by Arghun to form an alliance with the Europeans.
Buscarel was in Rome between 15 July and 30 September 1289, and in Paris in November–December 1289. [5] Via Buscarel, Arghun informed the European nobles, such as King Philip IV of France and Edward I of England, that Arghun would march his troops as soon as the Crusaders had disembarked at Saint-Jean-d'Acre, and that the Mongols would deliver between 20,000 and 30,000 horses and all needed supplies to the Crusaders if they would come to the Holy Land. Arghun also promised that he would deliver Jerusalem to the Europeans if Egypt was successfully conquered: [6] [7]
Under the power of the eternal sky, the message of the great king, Arghun, to the king of France..., said: I have accepted the word that you forwarded by the messengers under Saymer Sagura (Bar Sauma), saying that if the warriors of Il Khaan invade Egypt you would support them. We would also lend our support by going there at the end of the Tiger year's winter [1290], worshipping the sky, and settle in Damascus in the early spring [1291].
If you send your warriors as promised and conquer Egypt, worshipping the sky, then I shall give you Jerusalem. If any of our warriors arrive later than arranged, all will be futile and no one will benefit. If you care to please give me your impressions, and I would also be very willing to accept any samples of French opulence that you care to burden your messengers with.
I send this to you by Myckeril and say: All will be known by the power of the sky and the greatness of kings. This letter was scribed on the sixth of the early summer in the year of the Ox at Ho’ndlon."
— Letter from Arghun to Philippe le Bel. Dated 11 May 1289. France royal archives [8]
Buscarello also remitted to Philip a memorandum in French describing the details of the proposed combined action:
First of all, Arghun informs the King of France as a brother that, in all parts of the Orient among the Tartars, the Saracens and any other people, the greatness, power and faithfulness of the Kingdom of France has a certain renown, as well as the King of France, his Barons and his powerful Knights, who came several times to the help and the conquest of the Holy Land, in the honor of the son of the Virgin Mary and of all the Christian people. And the said Arghun informs the King of France as his brother that he himself and his army are ready and equipped to go to the conquest of the Holy Land and to be together with the King of France in this rightful service.
And I, Buscarel, in respect to this message from Arghun, say that if you, King of France, come in person to accomplish this rightful service, Arghun will bring with him two Christian Georgian kings under his lordship, who will be able to bring with them more than 20,000 horsemen.
I also say that, since Arghun has heard that it was very difficult for the King of France and his Barons to bring with them across the sea all the horses needed for their knights and their men, the King of France will receive from Arghun 20,000 to 30,000 horses as a gift.
Similarly, if you, King of France, so desires, Arghun will have all Turkey (Seljoukid Anatolia) prepare for you and for this rightful service animal meats, oxen, cows and camels, grains and flour, and any other available food according to your wish and request.
— Memorandum from Buscarel to Philippe le Bel. [9]
Buscarel then travelled to England to bring Arghun's message to Edward I, arriving in London on 5 January 1290. Edward answered enthusiastically to the project, but deferred the decision about the date to the Pope, failing to make a clear commitment. [10]
After his meeting with Edward, Buscarello returned to Persia, accompanied by the English envoy Sir Geoffrey de Langley. [1]
Buscarel made multiple other trips back and forth between the Ilkhanate and Europe, acting as an ambassador for various Mongol rulers in turn. He represented Ghazan in 1303, carrying a message which reiterated Hulagu's promise that the Mongols would give Jerusalem to the Franks in exchange for help against the Muslim Mamluks. [1] In 1303, the Mongols did attempt to invade Syria in great strength (about 80,000 troops), but were defeated at Homs on 30 March 1303, and at the decisive Battle of Shaqhab, south of Damascus, on 21 April 1303. [11] It is considered to be the last major Mongol invasion of Syria. [12]
In April 1305, Ghazan's successor Oljeitu sent letters to King Philip IV of France, [13] the Pope, and Edward I of England, again through an embassy by Buscarel, who himself wrote a translation of Oljeitu's letter. The message explained that internal conflicts between the Mongols were over, and promised the delivery of 100,000 horses to the Crusaders upon their arrival in the Holy Land. [6] Also, as had the previous Ilkhanate rulers, Oljeitu offered a military collaboration between the Christian nations of Europe and the Mongols against the Mamluks, but again, the attempts at forming an alliance were unsuccessful.
The Ilkhanate or Il-khanate, also known as the Ilkhanids, and known to the Mongols as Hülegü Ulus, was a Mongol khanate established from the southwestern sector of the Mongol Empire. The Ilkhanid realm was officially known as the Land of Iran or simply Iran. It was established after Hülegü, the son of Tolui and grandson of Genghis Khan, inherited the West Asian part of the Mongol Empire after his brother Möngke Khan died in 1259.
Abaqa Khan, was the second Mongol ruler (Ilkhan) of the Ilkhanate. The son of Hulagu Khan and Lady Yesünčin and the grandson of Tolui, he reigned from 1265 to 1282 and was succeeded by his brother Ahmed Tekuder. Much of Abaqa's reign was consumed with civil wars in the Mongol Empire, such as those between the Ilkhanate and the northern khanate of the Golden Horde. Abaqa also engaged in unsuccessful attempts at invading Syria under the Mamluk Sultanate, which included the Second Battle of Homs.
Rabban Bar Ṣawma, also known as Rabban Ṣawma or Rabban Çauma, was a Uyghur or Ongud monk turned diplomat of the "Nestorian" Church of the East in China. He is known for embarking on a pilgrimage from Yuan China to Jerusalem with one of his students, Rabban Markos. Due to military unrest along the way, they never reached their destination, but instead spent many years in Ilkhanate-controlled Baghdad.
Arghun Khan was the fourth ruler of the Mongol empire's Ilkhanate, from 1284 to 1291. He was the son of Abaqa Khan, and like his father, was a devout Buddhist. He was known for sending several embassies to Europe in an unsuccessful attempt to form a Franco-Mongol alliance against the Muslim Mamluks in the Holy Land. It was also Arghun who requested a new bride from his great-uncle Kublai Khan. The mission to escort the young Kököchin across Asia to Arghun was reportedly taken by Marco Polo. Arghun died before Kököchin arrived, so she instead married Arghun's son, Ghazan.
Mahmud Ghazan was the seventh ruler of the Mongol Empire's Ilkhanate division in modern-day Iran from 1295 to 1304. He was the son of Arghun, grandson of Abaqa Khan and great-grandson of Hulegu Khan, continuing a long line of rulers who were direct descendants of Genghis Khan. Considered the most prominent of the il khans, he is perhaps best known for converting to Islam and meeting Imam Ibn Taymiyya in 1295 when he took the throne, marking a turning point for the dominant religion of the Mongols in West Asia: Iran, Iraq, Anatolia, and the South Caucasus.
Mulay, Mûlay, Bulay was a general under the Mongol Ilkhanate ruler Ghazan at the end of the 13th century. Mulay was part of the 1299–1300 Mongol offensive in Syria and Palestine, and remained with a small force to occupy the land after the departure of Ghazan. He also participated in the last Mongol offensive in the Levant in 1303. His name has caused confusion for some historians, because of its similarity with that of the contemporary Grand Master of the Knights Templar, Jacques de Molay.
Starting in the 1240s, the Mongols made repeated invasions of Syria or attempts thereof. Most failed, but they did have some success in 1260 and 1300, capturing Aleppo and Damascus and destroying the Ayyubid dynasty. The Mongols were forced to retreat within months each time by other forces in the area, primarily the Egyptian Mamluks. The post-1260 conflict has been described as the Mamluk–Ilkhanid War.
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Isol the Pisan, also known as Ciolo Bofeti di Anastasio or Zolus Bofeti de Anestasio, was an Italian merchant, diplomat, and military leader. For some time he resided at the court of the Mongol Ilkhan, Ghazan, in Persia, rising to become his ambassador or liaison to the Kingdom of Cyprus. His high status at Ghazan's court may stem from his being the godfather of Öljeitü at the latter's baptism.
Buluqhan Khatun, also Bulughan, Bulukhan, Bolgana, Bulugan, Zibeline or Bolghara for Marco Polo, was a 13th-century Mongol princess, and the principal wife of the Mongol Ilkhanid ruler Abaqa (1234–1282).
Tommaso Ugi di Siena was a 14th-century Italian adventurer, native of the city of Siena in Italy. He resided at the court of the Mongol Ilkhanid ruler Oljeitu in the Persian capital of Tabriz, where he held the high position of Ildüchi, "Sword bearer", for Oljeitu. Other adventurers, such as Buscarello de Ghizolfi or Isol the Pisan, are known to have played similar roles at the Mongol court. Hundreds such Western adventurers entered into the service of Mongol rulers.
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The fall of Ruad in 1302 was one of the culminating events of the Crusades in the Eastern Mediterranean. In 1291, the Crusaders had lost their main power base at the coastal city of Acre, and the Muslim Mamluks had been systematically destroying the remaining Crusader ports and fortresses in the region, forcing the Crusaders to relocate the dwindling Kingdom of Jerusalem to the island of Cyprus. In 1299–1300, the Cypriots sought to retake the Syrian port city of Tortosa, by setting up a staging area on Ruad, two miles (3 km) off the coast of Tortosa. The plans were to coordinate an offensive between the forces of the Crusaders, and those of the Ilkhanate. However, though the Crusaders successfully established a bridgehead on the island, the Mongols did not arrive, and the Crusaders were forced to withdraw the bulk of their forces to Cyprus. The Knights Templar set up a permanent garrison on the island in 1300, but the Mamluks besieged and captured Ruad in 1302. With the loss of the island, the Crusaders lost their last foothold in the Holy Land and it marked the end of crusader presence in the Levant region.
Yahballaha III, known in earlier years as Rabban Marcos was Patriarch of the East from 1281 to 1317. As patriarch, Yahballaha headed the Church of the East during the severe persecutions under the reign of khans Ghazan and his successor Öljaitü. He acknowledged the primacy of the Pope and tried to form a church union, which was rejected by the Nestorian bishops of the Church of the East.
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The fall of Outremer describes the history of the Kingdom of Jerusalem from the end of the last European Crusade to the Holy Land in 1272 until the final loss in 1302. The kingdom was the center of Outremer—the four Crusader states—formed after the First Crusade in 1099 and reached its peak in 1187. The loss of Jerusalem in that year began the century-long decline. The years 1272–1302 are fraught with many conflicts throughout the Levant as well as the Mediterranean and Western European regions, and many Crusades were proposed to free the Holy Land from Mamluk control. The major players fighting the Muslims included the kings of England and France, the kingdoms of Cyprus and Sicily, the three Military Orders and Mongol Ilkhanate. Traditionally, the end of Western European presence in the Holy Land is identified as their defeat at the Siege of Acre in 1291, but the Christian forces managed to hold on to the small island fortress of Ruad until 1302.