Raoult's law ( law) is a relation of physical chemistry,with implications in thermodynamics. Proposed by French chemist François-Marie Raoult in 1887,it states that the partial pressure of each component of an ideal mixture of liquids is equal to the vapor pressure of the pure component multiplied by its mole fraction in the mixture. In consequence,the relative lowering of vapor pressure of a dilute solution of nonvolatile solute is equal to the mole fraction of solute in the solution.
In chemistry,solubility is the ability of a substance,the solute,to form a solution with another substance,the solvent. Insolubility is the opposite property,the inability of the solute to form such a solution.
In physical chemistry,supersaturation occurs with a solution when the concentration of a solute exceeds the concentration specified by the value of solubility at equilibrium. Most commonly the term is applied to a solution of a solid in a liquid,but it can also be applied to liquids and gases dissolved in a liquid. A supersaturated solution is in a metastable state;it may return to equilibrium by separation of the excess of solute from the solution,by dilution of the solution by adding solvent,or by increasing the solubility of the solute in the solvent.
In physical chemistry,Henry's law is a gas law that states that the amount of dissolved gas in a liquid is directly proportional to its partial pressure above the liquid. The proportionality factor is called Henry's law constant. It was formulated by the English chemist William Henry,who studied the topic in the early 19th century. In simple words,we can say that the partial pressure of a gas in vapour phase is directly proportional to the mole fraction of a gas in solution.
In chemistry,colligative properties are those properties of solutions that depend on the ratio of the number of solute particles to the number of solvent particles in a solution,and not on the nature of the chemical species present. The number ratio can be related to the various units for concentration of a solution such as molarity,molality,normality (chemistry),etc. The assumption that solution properties are independent of nature of solute particles is exact only for ideal solutions,which are solutions that exhibit thermodynamic properties analogous to those of an ideal gas,and is approximate for dilute real solutions. In other words,colligative properties are a set of solution properties that can be reasonably approximated by the assumption that the solution is ideal.
Freezing-point depression is a drop in the maximum temperature at which a substance freezes,caused when a smaller amount of another,non-volatile substance is added. Examples include adding salt into water,alcohol in water,ethylene or propylene glycol in water,adding copper to molten silver,or the mixing of two solids such as impurities into a finely powdered drug.
In chemical thermodynamics,the fugacity of a real gas is an effective partial pressure which replaces the mechanical partial pressure in an accurate computation of chemical equilibrium. It is equal to the pressure of an ideal gas which has the same temperature and molar Gibbs free energy as the real gas.
Crystallization is the process by which solids form,where the atoms or molecules are highly organized into a structure known as a crystal. Some ways by which crystals form are precipitating from a solution,freezing,or more rarely deposition directly from a gas. Attributes of the resulting crystal depend largely on factors such as temperature,air pressure,cooling rate,and in the case of liquid crystals,time of fluid evaporation.
A separatory funnel,also known as a separation funnel,separating funnel,or colloquially sep funnel,is a piece of laboratory glassware used in liquid-liquid extractions to separate (partition) the components of a mixture into two immiscible solvent phases of different densities. Typically,one of the phases will be aqueous,and the other a lipophilic organic solvent such as ether,MTBE,dichloromethane,chloroform,or ethyl acetate. All of these solvents form a clear delineation between the two liquids. The more dense liquid,typically the aqueous phase unless the organic phase is halogenated,sinks to the bottom of the funnel and can be drained out through a valve away from the less dense liquid,which remains in the separatory funnel.
Liquid–liquid extraction,also known as solvent extraction and partitioning,is a method to separate compounds or metal complexes,based on their relative solubilities in two different immiscible liquids,usually water (polar) and an organic solvent (non-polar). There is a net transfer of one or more species from one liquid into another liquid phase,generally from aqueous to organic. The transfer is driven by chemical potential,i.e. once the transfer is complete,the overall system of chemical components that make up the solutes and the solvents are in a more stable configuration. The solvent that is enriched in solute(s) is called extract. The feed solution that is depleted in solute(s) is called the raffinate. Liquid–liquid extraction is a basic technique in chemical laboratories,where it is performed using a variety of apparatus,from separatory funnels to countercurrent distribution equipment called as mixer settlers. This type of process is commonly performed after a chemical reaction as part of the work-up,often including an acidic work-up.
The American Society for Engineering Education (ASEE) is a non-profit member association,founded in 1893,dedicated to promoting and improving engineering and engineering technology education. The purpose of ASEE is the advancement of education in all of its functions which pertain to engineering and allied branches of science and technology,including the processes of teaching and learning,counseling,research,extension services and public relations. ASEE administers the engineering technology honor society Tau Alpha Pi.
An evaporator is a type of heat exchanger device that facilitates evaporation by utilizing conductive and convective heat transfer,which provides the necessary thermal energy for phase transition from liquid to vapour. Within evaporators,a circulating liquid is exposed to an atmospheric or reduced pressure environment causing it to boil at a lower temperature compared to normal atmospheric boiling.
An osmotic coefficient is a quantity which characterises the deviation of a solvent from ideal behaviour,referenced to Raoult's law. It can be also applied to solutes. Its definition depends on the ways of expressing chemical composition of mixtures.
Dr. G. Glenn Lipscomb is an American chemical engineer,and Distinguished University Professor in Chemical Engineering at the University of Toledo.
Linda Marie Abriola is an American environmental and civil engineer who specializes in the study of organic chemical liquid contaminants in porous media. She is currently the Joan Wernig and E. Paul Sorensen Professor of Engineering at the Brown University School of Engineering.
Geraldine Lee Richmond is an American chemist and physical chemist who is serving as the Under Secretary of Energy for Science in the US Department of Energy. Richmond was confirmed to her DOE role by the United States Senate on November 5,2021. Richmond is the Presidential Chair in Science and professor of chemistry at the University of Oregon (UO). She conducts fundamental research to understand the chemistry and physics of complex surfaces and interfaces. These understandings are most relevant to energy production,atmospheric chemistry and remediation of the environment. Throughout her career she has worked to increase the number and success of women scientists in the U.S. and in many developing countries in Africa,Asia and South America. Richmond has served as president of the American Association for the Advancement of Science,and she received the 2013 National Medal of Science.
Daniel Wayne Armstrong is an American chemist who specializes in separation science,chiral molecular recognition,bioanalytic analysis,mass spectrometry and colloid chemistry. He is the Robert A. Welch Distinguished Professor at the University of Texas at Arlington. He has authored ~ 750 publications including 35 book chapters,a book,and holds over 35 patents on separation technologies. He was an associate editor for the prestigious American Chemical Society journal Analytical Chemistry. He is a fellow of the American Chemical Society,Royal Chemical Society (UK),and the National Academy of Inventors. Armstrong has given over 560 invited seminars worldwide at international conferences,universities and corporations. His research and patents formed the basis for two companies:Advanced Separation Technologies,Inc;which was acquires by Sigma-Aldrich Corporation in 2006 and AZYP,LLC in Arlington,TX. His published work has been cited over 50,000 times and his h-index is 115. He is believed to have mentored more graduate level analytical chemists than any living scientist.
Branka Maria Ladanyi was a Yugoslavian-born Croatian-American physical chemist,who spent her career in the department of chemistry at Colorado State University. Her research focused on structure and dynamics of liquids,broadly defined,which she studied using theoretical and computational techniques.
Joan F. Brennecke is an American chemical engineer who is the Cockrell Family Chair in Engineering in the McKetta Department of Chemical Engineering at the University of Texas at Austin. Brennecke develops supercritical fluids,ionic liquids and novel spectroscopic methods.
Deresh RamjugernathFAAS is a South African professor of Engineering Technology &Applied Sciences. He was a Deputy Vice-Chancellor of Research at the University of KwaZulu-Natal (UKZN) and will assume the position Rector and Vice-Chancellor at Stellenbosch University on 1 April 2025.
