De consideratione is a book of five parts by Bernard of Clairvaux; the great 12th-century abbot wrote it for (or rather, to) his fellow Cistercian monk who had become Pope Eugenius III. The book is famous for its portrayal of a church leader in a conflict between devotion to God and the demands of the papal court. The book was written between 1148 and 1152, late in Bernard's life.
The book follows the medieval genre of a "mirror" for examining one's conscience, but Bernard uses the occasion to develop theological speculation about the papacy and also about personal contemplation. [1] Mayr-Harting summarizes the book's spiritual thrust as follows: "The pope is nobody without prayer, without consideration; the greater his stewardship, the more he must remember in humility that he owes everything to God. Bernard's purpose was moral and spiritual, and he wrote in a tradition which goes back at least to Pope Gregory the Great's Pastoral Care." [2] The book also addresses the doctrine of the two swords. In general, Bernard uses the book to present monks as "the conscience of the medieval church." [3]
In Book One, Bernard goes through what he imagines to be the appointments on the pope's daily schedule and criticizes Eugenius for being overloaded with inappropriate responsibilities. He is particularly critical of Eugenius' role of having to judge over litigation at the papal court. According to St. Paul, judges should be taken from those who despise the church.
Book Two mentions the failed second crusade as an example of God's inscrutable and often mysterious ways. [4] As is typical for Bernard's free-ranging style, he soon changes topics and seeks to lead Eugenius to reflect on his monastic vows, in which humility play a major role. The papacy is, however, bound to seduce the monk-pope into thinking he is greater than those around him.
Book Three allows for the legitimate application of papal power, regardless of questions of humility. Heretics are to be disciplined, the unchurched brought into the fold, and ambitious clerics kept in their place. Several pages are devoted to the appeals made to the pope for special privileges and dispensations; these can be a temptation to corruption.
Book Four is about the people surrounding Eugene at court, and how he should consider them as brother bishops and set a good example for them, even be a "mirror of holiness" (4:23). He should also be careful about which clerics he chooses as advisors and confidants.
Book Five gives extensive details on the practice of Christian contemplation, and it provides an extensive discussion of speculative theology. Bernard explains to the pope not only what pontiff is authoritative over, but also "what is authoritative over him." [5]
De consideratione defines Bernard's theory of the two swords, one being temporal authority and the other, spiritual. Bernard began writing about this topic in a letter to Eugenius in 1150. [6] According to this theory, widely held among medieval theologians, the secular ruler is the servant of the church. His authority was given to him by the pope only in order to free churchmen from administrative and military tasks. [6]
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Bernard of Clairvaux, O.Cist., venerated as Saint Bernard, was an abbot, mystic, co-founder of the Knights Templar, and a major leader in the reform of the Benedictines through the nascent Cistercian Order.
Pope Innocent II, born Gregorio Papareschi, was head of the Catholic Church and ruler of the Papal States from 14 February 1130 to his death in 1143. His election as Pope was controversial, and the first eight years of his reign were marked by a struggle for recognition against the supporters of Anacletus II. He reached an understanding with King Lothair III of Germany, who supported him against Anacletus, and whom he crowned as Holy Roman Emperor. Innocent went on to preside over the Second Council of the Lateran.
Pope Eugene III, born Bernardo Pignatelli, or possibly Paganelli, called Bernardo da Pisa, was head of the Catholic Church and ruler of the Papal States from 15 February 1145 to his death in 1153. He was the first Cistercian to become pope. In response to the fall of Edessa to the Muslims in 1144, Eugene proclaimed the Second Crusade. The crusade failed to recapture Edessa, which was the first of many failures by the Christians in the crusades to recapture lands won in the First Crusade. He was beatified in 1872 by Pope Pius IX.
The Cistercians, officially the Order of Cistercians, are a Catholic religious order of monks and nuns that branched off from the Benedictines and follow the Rule of Saint Benedict, as well as the contributions of the highly-influential Bernard of Clairvaux, known as the Latin Rule. They are also known as Bernardines, after Saint Bernard, or as White Monks, in reference to the colour of their cowl, as opposed to the black cowl worn by Benedictines.
Hans Urs von Balthasar was a Swiss theologian and Catholic priest who is considered one of the most important Catholic theologians of the 20th century. With Joseph Ratzinger and Henri de Lubac, he founded the theological journal Communio. Over the course of his life, he authored 85 books, over 500 articles and essays, and almost 100 translations. He is known for his 15-volume trilogy on beauty, goodness (Theo-Drama), and truth (Theo-Logic).
Quantum praedecessores is a papal bull issued on 1 December 1145 by Pope Eugenius III, calling for a Second Crusade. It was the first papal bull issued with a crusade as its subject.
The Spiritual Exercises, composed 1522–1524, are a set of Christian meditations, contemplations, and prayers written by Ignatius of Loyola, a 16th-century Spanish Catholic priest, theologian, and founder of the Society of Jesus (Jesuits).
In Western Christianity, Lectio Divina is a traditional monastic practice of scriptural reading, meditation and prayer intended to promote communion with God and to increase the knowledge of God's word. In the view of one commentator, it does not treat Scripture as texts to be studied, but as the living word.
Cistercian architecture is a style of architecture associated with the churches, monasteries and abbeys of the Roman Catholic Cistercian Order. It was heavily influenced by Abbot Bernard of Clairvaux, who believed that churches should avoid superfluous ornamentation so as not to distract from prayer. Cistercian architecture was simple and utilitarian. Although a few images of religious subjects were allowed, such as the crucifix, elaborate figures common in medieval churches were prohibited. Bernard noted their capacity for distracting monks in a famous letter. Early Cistercian architecture shows a transition between Romanesque and Gothic architecture. Later abbeys were constructed in Renaissance and Baroque styles, which were more ornate by nature.
William of Saint-Thierry, O. Cist was a twelfth-century Benedictine, theologian and mystic from Liège who became abbot of Saint-Thierry in France, and later joined the Cistercian Order.
Hugh or Hugo was a French Cistercian and Cardinal. He was born probably in the diocese of Beauvais and entered the order of Cistercians in Clairvaux. In 1147 he became abbot of Trois-Fontaines. Pope Eugenius III created him Cardinal-Bishop of Ostia in the consistory celebrated probably in December 1151. He subscribed the papal bulls between 29 December 1151 and 24 January 1155 and participated in the papal election, 1153 and papal election, 1154. He corresponded with Bernard of Clairvaux. Cistercians venerated him as blessed.
Christianity in the 12th century was marked by scholastic development and monastic reforms in the western church and a continuation of the Crusades, namely with the Second Crusade in the Holy Land.
The 1145 papal election followed the death of Pope Lucius II and resulted in the election of Pope Eugene III, the first pope of the Order of Cistercians.
John of the Grating was a Cistercian Bishop of Aleth. He moved his episcopal see to Saint-Malo to protect it from pirates.
Jean LeclercqOSB, was a French Benedictine monk, the author of classic studies on Lectio Divina and the history of inter-monastic dialogue, as well as the life and theology of Saint Bernard of Clairvaux. LeClercq is perhaps best known in the English speaking world for his seminal work The Love of Learning and the Desire for God: A Study of Monastic Culture.
Guigo II, sometimes referred to as Guy, or by the moniker "the Angelic", was a Carthusian monk and the 9th prior of Grande Chartreuse monastery, from 1174 to 1180.
Cambron Abbey was a Cistercian abbey in Cambron-Casteau, in the municipality of Brugelette, Hainaut, Belgium. It was located on the river Blanche, a tributary of the Dender, about 9 km (5.6 mi) to the south-east of Ath. Dissolved in 1782, parts of the abbey still survive as ruins within Pairi Daiza zoo and botanical garden.
Stephen of Lexington, was an English Cistercian monk, abbot, and founder of a college in Paris.
John R. Sommerfeldt was an American university professor, medievalist and scholar of Cistercian Studies.
In Catholicism, the doctrineof the two swords is an exegesis of Luke 22:38 elaborated in the Middle Ages. It can be understood as a particular justification for the Gelasian doctrine of "the sacred authority of the priesthood and the royal power".
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