December (from Latin decem, "ten") or mensis December was originally the tenth month of the Roman calendar, following November (novem, "nine") and preceding Ianuarius. It had 29 days. When the calendar was reformed to create a 12-month year starting in Ianuarius, December became the twelfth month, but retained its name, as did the other numbered months from Quintilis (July) to December. Its length was increased to 31 days under the Julian calendar reform.
The Romans did not number days of a month sequentially from the first day through the last. Instead, they counted back from the three fixed points of the month: the Nones (5th or 7th), the Ides (13th or 15th), and the Kalends (1st) of the following month. The Nones of December was the 5th, and the Ides the 13th. The last day of December was the pridie Kalendas Ianuarias, [1] "day before the Januarian Kalends". Roman counting was inclusive; December 9 was ante diem V Idūs Decembrīs, "the 5th day before the Ides of December," usually abbreviated a.d. V Id. Dec. (or with the a.d. omitted altogether); December 24 was IX Kal. Ian., "the 9th day before the Kalends of Ianuarius," on the Julian calendar (VII Kal. Ian. on the pre-Julian calendar, when December had only 29 days).
On the calendar of the Roman Republic and early Principate, each day was marked with a letter to denote its religiously lawful status. Each day was marked with a letter such as: [2]
By the late 2nd century AD, extant calendars no longer showed days marked with these letters, probably in part as a result of calendar reforms undertaken by Marcus Aurelius. [3] Days were also marked with nundinal letters in cycles of A B C D E F G H, to mark the "market week". [4]
Modern date | Roman date | status | Observances |
---|---|---|---|
December 1 | Kalendae Decembrīs | ||
2 | ante diem IV Nonas Decembrīs | ||
3 | III Non. Dec. | • Bona Dea rites for women only | |
4 | pridie Nonas Decembrīs (abbrev. prid. Non. Dec.) | ||
5 | Nonae Decembrīs | • A country festival for Faunus held by the pagi | |
6 | VIII Id. Dec. | ||
7 | VII Id. Dec. | ||
8 | VI Id. Dec. | • Festival for Tiberinus Pater and Gaia | |
9 | V Id. Dec. | ||
10 | IV Id. Dec. | ||
11 | III Id. Dec. | • AGONALIA for Indiges; also the (probably unrelated) Septimontium | |
12 | pridie Idūs Decembrīs (abbrev. prid. Id. Dec.) | • Ceremonies at the Temple of Consus on the Aventine | |
13 | Idūs Decembrīs | • dies natalis of the Temple of Tellus, and associated lectisternium for Ceres | |
14 | XIX Kal. Ian. | ||
15 | XVIII Kal. Ian. | • CONSVALIA or Feriae for Consus, the second of the year | |
16 | XVII Kal. Ian. | ||
17 | XVI Kal. Ian. | • SATVRNALIA | |
18 | XV Kal. Ian. | • EPONALIA in honor of Epona | |
19 | XIV Kal. Ian. | • OPALIA in honor of Ops | |
20 | XIII Kal. Ian. | ||
21 | XII Kal. Ian. | • DIVALIA in honor of Angerona; Hercules and Ceres also received a sacrifice | |
22 | XI Kal. Ian. | • Anniversary of the Temple of the Lares Permarini in the Porticus Minucia | |
23 | X Kal. Ian. | • LARENTALIA ; commemorations for the temples of Diana and Juno Regina in the Circus Flaminius, and for the Tempestates; Sigillaria, the last day of the Saturnalia, devoted to gift-giving | |
24 | IX Kal. Ian. | ||
25 | VIII Kal. Ian. | • Dies Natalis Solis Invicti ("Birthday of the Unconquered Sun"); Brumalia (both Imperial) | |
26 | VII Kal. Ian. | ||
27 | VI Kal. Ian. | ||
28 | V Kal. Ian. | ||
29 | IV Kal. Ian. | ||
30 | III Kal. Ian. | ||
31 | prid. Kal. Ian. | ||
The Julian calendar is a solar calendar of 365 days in every year with an additional leap day every fourth year. The Julian calendar is still used as a religious calendar in parts of the Eastern Orthodox Church and in parts of Oriental Orthodoxy as well as by the Amazigh people.
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Sextilis or mensis Sextilis was the Latin name for what was originally the sixth month in the Roman calendar, when March was the first of ten months in the year. After the calendar reform that produced a twelve-month year, Sextilis became the eighth month, but retained its name. It was renamed Augustus (August) in 8 BC in honor of the first Roman emperor, Augustus. Sextilis followed Quinctilis, which was renamed Julius (July) after Julius Caesar, and preceded September, which was originally the seventh month.
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Februarius, fully Mensis Februarius, was the shortest month of the Roman calendar from which the Julian and Gregorian month of February derived. It was eventually placed second in order, preceded by Ianuarius and followed by Martius. In the oldest Roman calendar, which the Romans believed to have been instituted by their legendary founder Romulus, March was the first month, and the calendar year had only ten months in all. Ianuarius and Februarius were supposed to have been added by Numa Pompilius, the second king of Rome, originally at the end of the year. It is unclear when the Romans reset the course of the year so that January and February came first.
Ianuarius, Januarius, or January, fully Mensis Ianuarius and abbreviated Ian., was the first month of the ancient Roman calendar, from which the Julian and Gregorian month of January derived. It was followed by Februarius ("February"). In the calendars of the Roman Republic, Ianuarius had 29 days. Two days were added when the calendar was reformed under Julius Caesar in 45 BCE.
Maius or mensis Maius (May) was the fifth month of the ancient Roman calendar in the classical period, following Aprilis (April) and preceding Iunius (June). On the oldest Roman calendar that had begun with March, it was the third of ten months in the year. May had 31 days.
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The Fasti Ostienses are a calendar of Roman magistrates and significant events from 49 BC to AD 175, found at Ostia, the principal seaport of Rome. Together with similar inscriptions, such as the Fasti Capitolini and Fasti Triumphales at Rome, the Fasti Ostienses form part of a chronology known as the Fasti Consulares, or Consular Fasti.
Martius or mensis Martius ("March") was the first month of the ancient Roman year until possibly as late as 153 BC. After that time, it was the third month, following Februarius (February) and preceding Aprilis (April). Martius was one of the few Roman months named for a deity, Mars, who was regarded as an ancestor of the Roman people through his sons Romulus and Remus.
Aprilis or mensis Aprilis (April) was the fourth month of the ancient Roman calendar in the classical period, following Martius (March) and preceding Maius (May). On the oldest Roman calendar that had begun with March, Aprilis had been the second of ten months in the year. April had 29 days on calendars of the Roman Republic, with a day added to the month during the reform in the mid-40s BC that produced the Julian calendar.
Mensis Iunius or Iunius, also Junius (June), was the sixth month of the Roman calendar of the classical period, following Maius (May). In the oldest calendar attributed by the Romans to Romulus, Iunius had been the fourth month in a ten-month year that began with March (Martius, "Mars' month"). The month following June was thus called Quinctilis or Quintilis, the "fifth" month. Iunius had 29 days until a day was added during the Julian reform of the calendar in the mid-40s BC. The month that followed Iunius was renamed Iulius (July) in honour of Julius Caesar.
September or mensis September was originally the seventh of ten months on the ancient Roman calendar that began with March. It had 29 days. After the reforms that resulted in a 12-month year, September became the ninth month, but retained its name. September followed what was originally Sextilis, the "sixth" month, renamed Augustus in honor of the first Roman emperor, and preceded October, the "eighth" month that like September retained its numerical name contrary to its position on the calendar. A day was added to September in the mid-40s BC as part of the Julian calendar reform.
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